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Основною метою навчання студентів англійської мови в немовному вузі є досягнення ними практичного оволодіння цією мовою, що передбачає при заочному навчанні формування вміння самостійно читати літературу за фахом з метою здобуття інформації з іншомовних джерел.

В умовах заочного навчання такі види мовленневої діяльності як усна мова (говоріння та аудіювання), письмо застосовується упродовж всього курсу як засіб навчання.

Переклад (усний та письмовий) використовується:

  1. як засіб навчання;

  2. з метою контролю розуміння прочитанного;

  3. як можливий засіб передачі одержаної при читанні інформації.

Приступаючи до вивчення англійської мови на заочному відділенні, слід мати на увазі, що вивчення її буде успішним лише в тому разі, якщо студенти будуть працювати систематично, регулярно з перших днів навчання в вузі. Діючим засобом для збагачення словникового запасу та засвоєння граматичного матеріалу є читання та переклад учбових текстів; виконання письмових та усних вправ, додаткове читання газетних статей с загальнонаукової тематики, адаптованих науково-популярних текстів, а також текстів з фаху; виконання письмових контрольних робіт. Вирішальним фактором для розвитку навичок читання англійською мовою суспільно-політичної літератури з фаху є накопичення достатнього лексичного запасу та оволодіння граматичними формами та зворотами, необхідними для перекладу та розуміння тексту. Фонетичний, граматичний та лексичний матеріал відпрацьовується у вправах. Вправи даються у визначеній послідовності, яка забезпечує поступовий перехід від формування первинних навичок при застосуванні граматичних зразків та лексики до створення мовних навичок та вмінь. Результати самостійної работи студента-заочника упродовж семестру повинні знайти своє відбиття в його словнику та робочіх зошитах, які подаються на практичних заняттях та заліках. Важливе значення для розвитку навичок читання має оволодіння основами англійської фонетики. Як посібник з фонетики може бути використаний „Учебник английского языка для заочных технических вузов” під редакцією Л.М. Андріанової, Н.Ю. Багрової та Е.В. Єршової. М., Вища школа, 2002р. Перш за все студентам необхідно засвоїти правила вимови звуків та читання букв та буквосполучень, а також рекомендується регулярно виконувати відповідні вправи з данного підручника.

Методичні вказівки лексика. Робота над текстом.

Упродовж повного 2-річного курсу навчання студент-заочник повинен набути словниковий запас у розмірі 1000 лексичних одиниць/слів та словосполучень.

Для розширення запасу слів, необхідного для читання та розуміння суспільно-політичних текстів та текстів з фаху з англійської мови, студент-заочник повинен засвоїти систему англійського словостворення, ознайомитись з часто вживаними синонімами, антонімами, з перекладом фразеологічних та ідіоматичних зворотів. Для роботи над літературою з фаху студенту слід запам’ятати умовні скорочення слів, прийняті в пресі та спеціальній літературі. Студенту-заочнику слід вести власний словник слів та словосполучень у спеціальному зошиті.

Працюючи над текстом, слід в першу чергу виписувати базові слова. Для більш ефективної роботи зі словником необхідно знати англійський алфавіт.

Перш ніж виписувати слово та шукати його значення в англійському словнику, слід установити якою частиною мови воно являється.

Треба пам’ятати, що:

  1. артикль, прийменник, присвійник та вказівний займенник стоять завжди перед іменником;

  2. в англійській мові існує сталий порядок слів у реченні: підмет – присудок – доповнення – обставина;

  3. знання основних суфіксів та префіксів допомогає зрозуміти без словника слово, утворене від знайомого кореня;

  4. виписуючи слова, слід відкидати закінчення і знаходити початкову (словникову) форму слова;

  5. необхідно пам’ятати, що в кожній мові слово може мати багато значень: слід відбирати у словнику відповідне за значенням українське слово, згідно його граматичній функції та загальним змістом тексту, а також уявити собі сферу діяльності, про яку йде мова в тексті.

Для розвитку вмінь та навичок безперекладного розуміння тексту слід накопичити необхідний словниковий запас і постійно його поповнювати, оволодіти системою англійського словостворення, засвоїти граматичну побудову мови. Контроль безперекладного розуміння тексту здійснюється за допомогою передачі змічту данного тексту рідною або англійською мовою; запитань, поставлених до тексту чи складання плану пересказу.

1 Семестр. (всі спеціальності) unit 1 albert einstein.

Albert Einstein is one of the greatest scientists of all times was born in Germany on March 14, 1879. His unusual ability to mathematics and physics began to show itself at a technical school in Zurich.2 At the age of 21, after four years of university study, Albert Einstein got a job as a clerk in an office. But already in 1905 he made revolutionary discoveries in science. He published three papers in the field of physics and mathematics. In the first he explained the photo-electric effect by means of Planck's quantum theory. The second paper developed a mathematical theory of Brownian motion.4 He presented his third paper on "Special Theory of Relativity" to a physical journal. Einstein expressed his theory in the equation E = mc 2, roughly that energy equals mass times the square of the speed of light.

All over the world scientists read the work with great surprise. Few physicists understood its importance at that time. Everybody wanted to know as much as possible about the author. In which institute did he teach? In what laboratory did he do his research?

Einstein's fame among scientists grew slowly but surely. For a few years he lived in Prague5 where he worked as a professor. When he came to Prague, he often told his, students: "I shall always try to help you. If you have a problem, come to me with it, we shall solve it together."

He liked questions and answered them at once, for there were no simple or foolish questions for him. He spoke much with his students about scientific problems and his new ideas. His advice to students was, "Don't take easy problems."

In 1921 Einstein got the Nobel Prize in physics not for the theory of relativity but for a logical explanation of the photoelectric effect.

In 1922 he became a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Sciences for his outstanding contributions to physics and mathematics.

On March 14, 1979 by UNESCO decision all people throughout the world celebrated the birth centenary of the great 20th century scientist.

Notes on the Text

1. Albert Einstein - Ейнштейн Альберт (1879—1955)

2. Zurich — Цюрих (місто в Швейцарії)

3. Planck — Планк Макс (1858—1947) видатний німецький фізик

  1. Brownian motion — броунівський рух; Броун Роберт (1773—1858) шотландський ботанік

  2. Prague — Прага

Words and Expressions to be Learnt

age n — вік

equation n — рівняння

among prep — серед

establish v — устанавлювати

answer v — відповідати

become (became; become)

explain v — пояснювати, v — ставати

field n — галузь

century n — століття

foreign a — іноземний

come (came; come) v — get (got) v — отримувати приходити

help n, v — допомога

contribution n — внесок

decision n — рішення

discovery n — відкриття

know (knew; known) v — знати

equal v — рівнятися

make (made) v — робити

often adv — часто

speed n — швидкість

possible a — можливий

teach (taught) v — навчати

question n — запитання

tell (told) v — казати

relativity n — відносність

together adv — разом

understand (understood) v — розуміти

research n — дослідження

to be born — народжуватися

slowly adv — повільно

by means of — за допомогою;

solve v — вирішувати

easy a — легкий

job n — робота

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання.

  1. When and where was A. Einstein born?

  2. What discoveries did A. Einstein make in 1905?

  3. What prize did A. Einstein get in 1921?

  4. Where did A. Einstein work as a professor?

  5. What advice did A. Einstein give to his students?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. Albert Einstein was born in _____ on March 14, 1879.

  2. He published _____ _____ in the field of physics and mathematics.

  3. Einstein’s _____ grew slowly but surely.

  4. For a few years he lived in _____ where he worked as a professor.

  5. In 1921 Einstein got _____ _____ in physics for a logical explanation of the photoelectric effect.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова українським.

1. рух

a) motion

b) action

c) decision

d) equation

2. поясняти

a)to discover

b) to develop

c) to explain

d) to express

3. відомий

a) famous

b) well-known

c) outstanding

d) interesting

4. вирішувати

a) to solve

b) to answer

c) to advice

d) to speak

5. простий

a) easy

b) new

c) foolish

d) simple

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на українську та англійську мову групи слів, користуючись текстом.

A.

  1. a technical school

  2. foolish question

  3. a logical explanation

  4. outstanding contributions

  5. the field of physics

B.

  1. теорія відносності

  2. революційні відкриття

  3. вчені проблеми

  4. нові ідеї

  5. у всьому світі

Завдання 5. Підберіть вірні визначення наступним словам.

  1. mathematics

  1. physics

  1. science

  1. effect

  1. theory

    1. knowledge which depends on seeing and testing facts and stating general natural laws.

    2. scientifically acceptable explanation for a fact or event which has not been proved to be true.

    3. the science of numbers and of the structure and measurement of shapes.

    4. the science concerned with the study of matter and natural forces.

    5. something that happens when one thing acts on another

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту.

      1. At the age of 21 Albert Einstein got a job as …

      2. He presented his third paper on …

      3. Everybody wanted to know …

      4. He spoke much with …

      5. Einstein’s fame among scientists grew …

Unit 2 our star — the sun.

There are nine planets in the solar system:

Me — Mercury — Меркурій

Ve — Venus — Венера

Ea — Earth — Земля

Ma — Mars [ma:z] — Mapc

Jupiter — Юпітер

Saturn — Сатурн

Uranus — Уран

Neptune ['neptju:n] — Нептун

Pluto ['plu:tou] — Плутон

What do you know today of the nearest star which lies 150 million kilometers away?

The Sun is a mass of flaming matter, the temperature at its surface is above 5,500 degrees Centigrade, the temperature in the Sun's centre is as high as 20 million degrees Centigrade. The Sun's diameter is 109 times that of the Earth and its mass is 330,000 times greater.

The illumination of the Earth by the Sun is 10 billion times stronger than that by Sirius, the brightest star of the northern hemisphere. But this does not mean that the Sun is bigger than Sirius: it is simply closer to the Earth.

Nine planets with their satellites revolve round the Sun due to the force of universal gravitation. It takes our Earth a little more than 365 days to revolve around the Sun.

The Sun is the most important body in the Universe for mankind. It provides us with light during the day and the light of the Moon is only the reflected sunlight.

It is also important that the Sun gives us heat without which no life can exist on the Earth. It provides us with all the energy that we use every day.

When we look at the Sun, it seems a fire ball. But, even from a brief acquaintance with some of the solar phenomena, it is clear that the Sun is an ever boiling ocean. The Sun is a giant natural hydrogen bomb, equivalent to millions of man-made ones where the thermonuclear reaction proceeds continuously.

It is interesting to note that every second the Sun sends into space as much energy as mankind consumed during the whole period of its existence from the first fire of the cave-man to the establishment of the atomic power station.

Solar energy has great value to mankind.

Man has tried to use solar energy since the earliest times. Methods of using the light and heat energy from the Sun are not new, but they are not very efficient as yet.

It is necessary to find effective methods to use this immense supply of free energy, to make our star — the Sun — serve mankind.

Words to be learnt

bright a — яскравий

consume v — споживати

due to prp — завдяки

during prp — протягом

even adv — навіть

exist v — існувати

find (found) v — знаходити

force n — сила

free a —вільній

(in)efficient a— непродуктивный

lie (lay; lain) v — лежати

Universe n — всесвіт

value n — значення

whole a — увесь

Sun n — сонце

supply n — запас

since prp — з тих пір

solar а — сонячний

strong a — сильний

serve v — служити

heat n — тепло, и — нагрівати

mankind n — суспільство

man-made a — штучний

matter n — матерія

mean (meant) v — значити

Moon n — місяць

power n — енергія

provide v — забеспечувати

reflect v — відображати

revolve v — обертатися

seem v — вважатися

send (sent) v — відсилати

Завдання 1. Дайте відповідь на запитання.

1. What is the Sun?

2. What is the temperature at the Sun's surface?

3. Which is the brightest star of the northern hemisphere?

4. Is the Sun bigger than Sirius?

5. How many planets revolve around the Sun?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом текста.

1) The Sun is a mass of ______ matter.

2) Nine planets with their ______ revolve the Sun due to the force of universal gravitation.

3) The Sun is the most _______ body in the Universe for mankind.

4) Solar energy has great ______ to mankind.

5) It is necessary to find effective methods to _______ this immense supply of free energy.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англ. слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським.

1. забезпечувати

a) to supply;

b) to provide;

c) to give;

d) to buy

2. величезний

a) big;

b) efficient;

c) immense;

d) right

3. відображати

a) to reflect;

b) to give;

c) to light;

d) to shine

4. знайомство

a) greeting;

b) meeting;

c) coming;

d) acquaintance

5. продовжувати

a) to proceed;

b) to keep;

c) to lead;

d) to enter

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на українську та англійську мову групи слів, користуючись текстом.

А) 1. найближча зірка;

2. північна півкуля;

3. сила всесвітнього тяжіння;

4. термоядерні реакції;

5. велика цінність.

В) 1.flaming matter;

2. illumination of the Earth;

3. to revolve round the Sun;

4. natural hydrogen bomb;

5. immense supply of free energy.

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам:

1. The Sun

2. Existence

3. Supply

4. To consume

5. Establishment

a) the state or fact of being real or living.

b) an amount of smth that is provided or available to be used.

c) to use smth especially fuel, energy or time.

d) the act of starting or creating smth that is meant to last for long time.

e) mass of flaming matter.

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно з змістом тексту:

  1. The temperature at its surface is _______.

  2. It takes our Earth a little more than 365 days ________.

  3. Man has tried to use solar energy since________.

  4. The sun is a giant ________.

  5. It is also important than the Sun gives us heat without which ________.

Unit 3 flood defence system.

In October 1980 the first stone with the words "Let's protect Leningrad from floods" was thrown into the waves of the Gulf of Finland near Gorskaya — that was the beginning of the construction of a flood defence system that by 1990 will protect Leningrad from floods.

In its more than 280 years of existence the city has had nearly 300 floods. Three of them, in 1777, 1824 and 1924 were catastrophic. Ever since the foundation of the city by Peter the Great in 1703 various schemes for its protection were offered by specialists. But only due to modern technology such a giant hydro-engineering project was made possible.

The starting point was the adoption of the General Plan of Leningrad development (1966) which provided for the construction of a flood defence system. 52 scientific, designing and other organizations were working out this scheme for six years.

How does the hydro-engineering complex look like?

Eleven giant dams of rock and soil (each 8 metres high above mean sea level) cross the Gulf of Finland from Gorskaya in the north to Lomonosov in the south of the Gulf through Kotlin Island (Kronstadt Fortress). Along the length of the dams there are six spillways to let the water through in normal conditions.

Ships will pass through two deep-water channels which are located on each side of the island, the 200 metres wide, southern channel will be the main. When a rise in the water level is forecast the whole automatic system will be put in action.1 The gates which are located over the spillways will go down to close the "windows" and the gates which slide along special rails on the bottom of the channels will come out of the dock chambers and bar the way to the sea wave. It will take only 30 minutes to perform all the operations.

It should be said that the construction of such gates is a sort of revolution and has no analogy in modern world practice.

Motor-car highway — 24.4 kilometres long and 35 metres wide — runs along the top of the dams and bridges over the spillways and twice it "dives" into the tunnels under the bottom of the channels. The length of the southern tunnel is some 2,000 metres and that of the northern one is 1,400 metres.

The construction of the highway is paid great attention to 2 as according to 3 the General Plan for the development of Leningrad it is to become the outer part of the 150 km ring motor-road which will be built around the city.

The complex will allow to solve the problem of Leningrad protection from floods.

Notes on the Text

  1. to put in action — приводити у дію

  2. to pay attention to — приділяти увагу

  3. according to — згідно з

Words to Be Learn

adopt v — приймати

bridge n — міст

channel n — канал

cross v—перетинати

deep a — глибокий

defence n — захист

design n — креслення, конструкція

flood n — повінь

forecast n — передбачити

v (forecast) —заснування

foundation n — заснування

level n — рівень

locate v — розташуватися

mean a — середній

offer v — пропонувати

pass v — проходити, проїджати

perform v — виконувати

выполнять protect v — захищати ограждать rise n — підйом;

(rose; risen) — підніматися

road n — шлях

run (ran; run) v — бігти; працювати;

sea n — море

sort n — сорт, вид

through prp — через, крізь

various a — різноманітний

wave n — хвиля

way n — шлях, дорога

wide a — широкий

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання .

  1. How long were designers and engineers working at the scheme of the flood defence system?

2. What is the aim of this project?

3. Where is the giant dam located?

4. Where does the motor-car highway run?

5. Where are the tunnels for motor cars located?

Завдання 2. Заповнить пропуски по тексту .

  1. The starting point was the adoption _______.

  2. The gates which are located over the spillways will go down _____.

  3. Motor car highway ________long and _______ metres wide.

  4. The complex will allow _____ of Leningrad protection from floods.

  5. When a rise in the water level is forecast the whole automatic system _____.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення до підкреслених українських.

1. розробити

а) to work at;

b) to work out;

c) to work on;

d) to paint.

2. продовжувати

a) to develop;

b) to work;

c) to continue;

d) to design.

3. проект

a) project;

b) plan;

c) design;

d) building.

4. бути розташованим

a) to be situated;

b) to be located;

c) to be found;

d) to pass.

5. закривати

a) to open;

b) to close;

c) to shut;

d) to see.

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на українську мову та англійську групи слів, користуючись текстом.

а) 1. розробити новий проект

2. виконувати важливі операції

3. приділяти увагу

4. працювати над проблемою

5. захистити від поводі

b) 1. to put in action

2. according to

3. to work out a theory

4. to provide for

5. to forecast the rise

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

  1. highway

  2. flood

  3. channel

  4. bottom

  1. forecast

  1. the lowest interior or exterior part of anything;

  2. a public rood, well-paved and direct;

  3. a natural or artificial course for running water;

  4. a large quantity of water covering what is usually dry land, as the result of a river flowing over its usual limits;

  5. to predict on the basis of scientific observation and applied experience.

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом текста.

  1. The construction of such gates is a sort of ______.

  2. The first stone with the words “Let’s protect Leningrad from floods” was thrown into the _________.

  3. The starting point was the adoption of the ___________.

  4. 52 scientific, designing and other organizations were working out _________.

  5. Ships will pass through deep-water channels which are located on _________.

Unit 4 radio and tv march ahead.

More than hundred years passed since the day when the Russian scientist Alexander Popov demonstrated his "storm indicator" which was the prototype of modern radio receivers.

Great progress has been made in radio engineering, radio communications, radio broadcastings and televi­sion since that time. We have become so used to these means of communication that we can't imagine our life without all this.

In the modern world, radio and television play an im­portant role as a mass media of information and as a means of people's political and cultural education.

There is hardly a spot on the whole vast territory of Russia where there is no radio. The voice of radio is heard all over the world. Today more than 500 radio broadcasting stations in the country trans­mit a total of 1,500 hours per day. Programmes to other countries are conducted in 77 languages.

Modern means of radio engineering cover the greater part of the globe with long, medium and ultra-short radio waves. New radio stations are being built and equipped with the most modern instruments.

Television is also developing rapidly in Russia. At present Russia has a TV system which is the largest in the world. It includes 120 TV centres which make their own programmes. The construction of the world's biggest television centre, the Moscow centre, which is housed in the 533-metre high Ostankino television tower was completed in 1970. All programmes which are broadcasted by the Moscow centre are in colour. TV programmes broadcasts go out from Moscow every day on 12 channels with a total of 159.6 hours of broadcasting in every 24-hour period. There is a regular international exchange of TV programmes as well. Our television is linked with Intervision and Eurovision international systems.

Work on the improvement of space television and broadcasting is of great interest. The application of powerful outerspace relays makes it possible televising programmes directly to huge territories.

Some of the aims of radio and TV are to help strengthening peace and friendship among nations, to provide listeners and viewers with an objective review of events taking place in the world and to acquaint them with the life in the coun­try. Much has been done to develop radio broadcasting and television in our coun­try but still more remains to be done in the future.

Words and Expressions to Be Learnt

aim n — ціль

exchange n — обмін

application n — використання

hear (heard) v — чути

huge a — величезний

broadcast n — радіопередача

imagine v — уявляти, v — передавати по радіо

language n — мова

conduct v — вести, проводити

link v —з’єднувати

listen v — слухати

education п — освіта

peace n — мир

people n — народ, люди

engineering п — техніка

play п —гра; v — грати

event п — подія

rapidly adv — швидко

voice n — голос

receive v — одержувати

receiver n —радіоприймач

transmit v — передавати

to take place — відбуватися

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання.

    1. When did Alexander Popov demonstrat his “storm indicator”?

    2. What was the “storm indicator”?

    3. Why can’t we imagine our life without radio and television?

    4. How role do radio and television play in the modern world?

    5. How many radio broadcasting stations work in the country?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски користуючись змістом текста.

1). More than hundred years passed since the day when the Russian scientist Alexander Popov _________ his “storm indicator “which was prototype of modern radio receivers.

2).We cannot __________ our life without radiocasting, television, radio – communication.

3). Programmes to other countries are conducted in 77 __________.

4). Modern means of radio – engineering cover the greater part of the _________ with long, medium and ultra – short radio waves.

5).The application of powerful outer space __________ makes it possible televising programmes directly to huge territories.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським словам.

1). Сучасні засоби

a) modern society;

b) modern means;

c) exchange;

d) radio – broadcasting;

2). Радіо приймач

а) storm indicator

b) radio waves;

c) radio – receiver;

d) huge territories;

3). Освіта

а) aim;

b) language;

c) application;

d) education;

4). Хвиля

а) wave

b) country

c) color

d) spot

5). Удосконалення

a) education

b) improvements

c) future

d) equipment

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на українську мову та англійську мову групи слів, користуючись текстом.

А).

  1. television center;

  2. to be housed in;

  3. to be equipped;

  4. broadcasting stations;

  5. ultra – short waves;

B)

  1. ціль радіо;

  2. радіо техніка;

  3. телебачення;

  4. міжнародні системи;

  5. телевізійна програма;

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1. telephone

a) measure of space between two points or places.

2.radio– receiver

b) process of transmitting pictures by radio waves with sound at the same time.

3. distance

c) broadcasting by means of electromagnetic waves.

4. television

d) part of an apparatus for receiving signals

5. radio

e) a system of transmitting the human voice by electric current, through wires.

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом текста.

1) A.S. Popov’s “storm indicator “was …

2) Now radio and television play an important role as …

3) Modern means of radio engineering cover the greater part of our planet with…

4) Russian TV system includes 120 TV centers which…

5) Some of the aims of radio and tv are to acquaint people with … unit 4

In the chemical laboratory.

Look at the picture!

Here is our chemical laboratory. It occupies a large. room which is furnished with many long tables or benches 2 as they are called. It is at these benches that experiments are usually done. There are a lot of things on the first bench. Nearly in the middle there stands a Bunsen burner 3 with a flask over it. During an experiment the Bunsen burner is connected with the main gas line by a rubber tube. The flame of the burner is being regulated by means of a tap. The flask is fixed to the ring-stand. If some solution is boiling in the flask, the steam is coming out of it.

At the side of the bench there is a sink with two taps for cold and hot water. At the foot of the bench on the left-hand side there are two shelves with a few bottles on them. They contain chemical substances: solids and liquids. Some of the liquids are colourless and odourless, while others possess different colours and odours.

On the right-hand side there stands a rack with twelve test-tubes in it. On the wall above the bench one can see the Periodic Table of Elements. In the cupboard on the left you can see flasks of different shapes and sizes, different kinds of glass tubes, condensers, filters, and so on, that is,4 things without which no chemical experiment can be done.

A student in white overall, Barbara, is preparing for an experiment at her bench. She is to get a new compound. Barbara is measuring some liquid in the measuring-glass. When the liquid is measured it is poured into a special vessel and is mixed with water. From time to time Barbara looks up at the solution which is boiling oh the Bunsen burner.

The other student, David, is sitting at the table on the left near the window and is putting down the results of his experiments which he was carrying out from 11 to 12 a. m.5 Suddenly he raises his head and says:

"Hey, Barbara, what are you doing? Why is the room being filled with steam? Regulate the flame of the burner, please, or turn it off."

Barbara runs up to the burner. She turns off the tap of the burner and turns on the ventilators. The flame is being regulated; the powerful ventilators are being turned on. Little by little the air in the room is being purified.

Notes on the Text

  1. Here is our chemical laboratory.— Вот наша хімічна лабора­торія. (Тут має місце інверсія. Прислівник here набуває но­ве лексичне значення.)

  2. bench зд. лабораторний стіл

3. Bunsen burner — бунзенівський пальник; Bunsen, Robert — Роберт Бунзен, німецький фізик (1811 —1899)

4. that is — тобто

5. from 11 to 12 a. m.— з 11 до 12 години дня; а. m.— лат. ante meridiem — до полудня; р. m. — лат. post meridiem — післе полудня

Words to Be Learnt

boil v — кипіти

prepare for v — готуватися до

burner n — пальнік

call v — називати(ся)

purify v — очищати

carry out v — проводити

put down (put) v — записувати

colour n — колір

compound n —; хим. з’єднання

raise v — піднімати

connect v — з’єднанувати

rubber n — гума

contain v — містити

shape n — форма

fill v — наповнювати

side n — сторона

head п — голова

size n — розмір

liquid n — рідина

solution n — розчин

mix v — змішувати

steam n — пара

possess v — володіти

turn v — повертати

pour v — лити

turn on v — вмикати

powerful a — потужний

turn off v — вимикати

vessel n — сосуд

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на наступні запитання.

1.What is the chemical laboratory furnished with?

2.What things are there on the first bench?

3.What is the Bunsen burner connected with?

4.How can the flame of the burner be regulated?

5.What is the flask fixed to during experiments?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом текста.

  1. Nearly in the middle there stands a ___________ with a flask over it.

  2. If some solution is boiling in the flask, ______ is coming out of it.

  3. Some of the liquids are _______ and odourless, while others possess different colours and odours.

  4. Barbara is measuring some _______ in the measuring-glass.

  5. She _______ the top of the burner and turn on the ventilators.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським.

1. рідина

a) solid

b) liquid

с) steam

d) rubber

2. колір

a) odour

b) shape

c) size

d) colour

3. готуватися до

a) carry out

b) raiser for

c) prepare for

d) put down

4. вмикати

a) turn

b) turn on

c) turn off

d) turn up

5. зєднувати

a) contain

b) mix

c) purify

d) connect

Завдання 4. Перекладіть українською та англійською мовами групи слів, користуючись текстом.

A.

  1. готуватися до експерименту

  2. вимірювати рідину

  3. регулювати полум’я

  4. отримувати нові хімічні з’єднання

  5. полум’я різної форми та розміру

B.

  1. to contain chemical substances

  2. to occupy a room

  3. the Periodical Table of Elements

  4. to measure some liquids

  5. a powerful ventilator

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1. to fill

a) an elastics substance obtained from the latex.

2. solution

b) to join something together.

3. rubber

c) to point outward.

4. connect

d) to make full

5. turn out

e) a mixture of two or more substances.

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом текста.

  1. There are a lot of things on the first _________.

  2. During an experiment the Bunsen burner is connected with the main gas line by _________.

  3. At the side of the bench on the left-hand side there are two shelves with ______.

  4. On the wall above the bench one can see _________.

  5. Barbara runs up to the burner __________.

Unit 5 d. I. Mendeleyev — pride of russian science

The list of fields of knowledge which Mendeleyev's genius touched upon is enormous. Chemistry, physics, earth sciences, metrology, economics, metallurgy and many more. Mendeleyev's legacy comprises 25 volumes, a third of them devoted to chemistry.

D. I. Mendeleyev, the outstanding Russian scientist, was born in Tobolsk in 1834. In 1850 at the age of 16 he entered the Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg to study chemistry. Five years later he graduated from it with a gold medal and was invited to lecture on theoretical and organic chemistry at St. Petersburg University. To continue his studies and research Mendeleyev was sent to Germany in 1859. While living abroad he made a number of important investigations.

The year 1868 was the beginning of his highly acclaimed work "Fundamentals of Chemistry". When working at the subject Mendeleyev analysed an enormous amount of literature, made thousands of experiments and calculations. This tremendous work resulted in the Table of Elements consisting of vertical groups and horizontal periods. Mendeleyev was the first to suggest a system of classification in which the elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights. The main idea of the Periodic System is the idea of periodic repetition of properties with the increase of the atomic weights. Arranging all the existing elements in the Table Mendeleyev had to overcome great difficulties, as a considerable number of elements were unknown at that time and the atomic weights of 9 elements (out of 63) were wrongly determined. Thanks to his investigations Mendeleyev was able to predict not only the existence of a few unknown elements but their properties as well. Later the elements predicted were discovered.

More than 350 works written by Mendeleyev deal with a great many subjects. Combining theory with practical activities he carried out an enormous research in coal, iron and steel industries in Russia. He died in 1907 at the age of 73.

The achievements in chemistry and physics at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century made it necessary to reconstruct the Periodic Table taking into account3 new discoveries.

Time is the severest judge in science. After more than 100 years of its existence, the Periodic Law has preserved its full value and is being constantly developed with each new discovery.

Notes on the Text

  1. a number of — деяка кількість, ряд

  2. to take into account — прийняти до уваги

Words to Be Learnt

achieve v — досягти

graduate v — закінчувати

achlevement n — досягнення

investigate v — досліджувати

amount n —кількість

investigation n — дослідження

arrange v — розташувати

law nзакон

coal n — вугілля

order v — порядок

combine — з’єднувати

overcome (overcame; over- come)v — долати consist (of) v — складатися

create v — творити

predict v —передбачувати

repetition n — повторення

deal with (dealt) v — result in v — у висновку мати справу із

determine v — визначати

enter v — поступати

suggest v — пропонувати

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання.

  1. What fields of knowledge did Mendeleyev΄s genius touch upon?

  2. Where did Mendeleyev study chemistry?

  3. What is the main idea of the Periodic System?

  4. What was Mendeleyev able to predict?

  5. Was the Periodic Table reconstructed at the beginning of the 20th century?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски в реченнях, користуючись текстом.

  1. Mendeleyev was invited to lecture on ַַַַַַַַַ at St. Petersburg University.

  2. The Table of Elements consists of ַַַַַַַַַ and horizontal periods.

  3. Mendeleyev had to overcome ַַַַַַַַ to arrange all elements in the Table.

  4. Mendeleyev carried out enormous research in ַַַַַַַ and steel industries.

  5. The Periodic Law has preserved its ַַַַַַַַ

  6. Mendeleyev predicted the existence of ַַַַַַַַ

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським.

1. Кількість

a) amount

b) subject

c) weight

d) volumes

2. Відкриття

a) existence

b) development

c) discovery

d) work

3. Величезний

a) atomic

b) tremendous

c) important

d) practical

4. Знання

a) system

b) research

c) theory

d) knowledge

Завдання 4.Перекладіть на українську та англійську мову групи слів, користуючись текстом.

A).

  1. важливі дослідження

  2. невідомі елементи

  3. обчислення

  4. атомна вага

  5. передбачати

  6. брати до уваги

B).

  1. to touch upon

  2. to suggest

  3. existence

  4. an enormous amount

  5. practical activity

  6. periodic repetition

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1. to lecture

a) the science of weights and measures

2. abroad

b) something carried out successfully

3. property

c) in a foreign land

4. metrology

d) to deliver a lecture or series of lectures

5. achievement

e) a special quality belonging to something

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно з змістом тексту.

  1. To continue his studies and research Mendeleyev ַַַַַַַַַ

  2. The Table of Elements consists of ַַַַַַַַַ

  3. The atomic weights of 9 elements (out of 63) were ַַַַַַַַַ

  4. The elements are arranged in ַַַַַַַַַ

Unit 6 ernest rutherford

(1871-1937)

Ernest Rutherford was born in New Zealand where he lived up to 1895. At the age of 19 after finishing school he entered the only New Zealand University founded in 1870. At that time there were only 150 students and 7 professors there. At the university Ernest took great interest in physics and developed a magnetic detector of radio waves. However, he was absolutely uninterested in the practical applications of his discoveries.

In 1895 Rutherford went to Cambridge where he con­tinued research under Thomson (1856—1940), the out­standing English physicist. There Rutherford studied the processes of ionization in gases and took great interest in the theory of radioactivity discovered by Becquerel (1852-1908), a world-known French physicist. For about ten years Ernest Rutherford lived and worked in Canada. Later he lectured in leading universities in the USA and England from 1907 till 1919.

Rutherford's famous work "The Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles of Matter and the Structure of the Atom" dealt with so-called "atom models". All main Rutherford's works deal with the model of the atom. The split­ting of the atom has opened to man a new and enormous source of energy. The most important results have been obtained by splitting the atom of uranium.

For working out the theory of radioactive disintegra­tion of elements, for determining the nature of alpha particles, for developing the model of the atom, Rutherford was awarded in 1908 the Nobel Prize in chemistry.

Rutherford created a school of talented physicists in the field of atomic research, the Russian scientists P. Kapitza and Y. Kchariton were among his pupils. E. Rutherford died in 1937 at the age of 66.

Notes on the Text

disintegration n — розпад

nuclear atom — ядерна модель атома famous a — відомий

to found v — засновувати

particle n — частка

leading a — провідній

to scatter v — розсіватися

New Zealand — Нова Зеландія

to split v — розщеплюватися

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання.

        1. How old was Rutherford when he entered the University?

        2. What was Rutherford interested in?

        3. What countries did Rutherford live and work?

        4. What do all main Rutherford’s works deal with?

        5. When was Rutherford awarded the Nobel Prize?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. In 1890 he _________ the only New Zealand University.

  2. Four years later he _________ from the University and went to Cambridge.

  3. Some of his works ________ with the radioactivity of different elements.

  4. Being a talented organizer Rutherford __________ a large school of physicists.

  5. His ________ have become world-known.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським.

1. Провідний університет

a) higher education

b) educational establishment

c) big university

d) leading university

2. Талановитий фізик

a) famous physicist

b) outstanding researcher

c) talented physicist

d) famous scientist

3. Радіохвилі

a) radio set

b) radio receiver

c) radio waves

d) radar

4. Практичне застосування

a) development

b) practical application

c) great interest

d) practical training

5. Джерело енергії

a) investigation

b) source of energy

c) nature

d) nuclear

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на українську та англійську мову групи слів користуючись текстом.

A).

1. splitting the atom

2. to be awarded

3. famous work

4. important results

5. to study the processes

B).

  1. ведучий університет

  2. мати справу із

  3. важливі результати

  4. розробка теорії

  5. получати результати

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1. chemistry

a. the smallest unit of an element.

2. detector

b. branch of science that deals with how substances are made up.

3. atom

c. university teacher at the highest level.

4. enormous

d. device for detecting something.

5. professor

e. very great.

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту.

  1. The first university where Rutherford studied was in ___________ .

  2. At the university Rutherford became interested in ___________ .

  3. Rutherford’s famous work dealt with ___________ .

  4. In 1908 Rutherford got Nobel Prize for ___________ .

5. Rutherford created a school of ___________.

2 Семестр. (всі спеціальності) unit 1 Academician Igor Kurchatov (1903 – 1960)

Among the famous atomic scientists the first place belongs by right to Academician Igor Kurchatov.

Since 1925 I. V. Kurchatov began to work at the Physical – Engineering Institute in Leningrad. It was here that he achieved great results in the research of dielectrics which had been little known at that time.

As far as early thirties atomic research was being successfully conducted. The nuclear physics was in need of powerful source of fast particles capable of inducing a nuclear reaction. A group of young research workers, with I. Kurchatov at the head, began investigations led to a striking discovery of fission of uranium nucleus.

I. Kurchatov understood that the neutron was the key to splitting the atom and he put all his efforts into neutron research. In 1940 I. Kurchatov came to the conclusion that slow neutron chain reaction was quite possible. But World War II interrupted his work, and all research programs had to be suspended.

In 1949 the Government announced that the secret of the atom bomb no longer existed and the USA had lost its atomic monopoly. It was decided that the scientists would continue their work in the field of atom application for peace.

On June 27, 1954, the first atomic power plant in the world was put into operation near Moscow. This power generating installation based on the uranium – graphite reactor was Kurchatov`s favourite creation. Later he was carried away by another great idea – to master controlled thermonuclear reactions.

V. Kurchatov died in 1960 but his experience and his knowledge have become immortalized in the world’s first atomic power plant, atom – driven ice – breakers, in Dubna Institute and in thermonuclear research.

Notes on the Text

  1. by right – по праву

  2. as far as early thirties – ще на початку тридцятих років

Words to Be Learnt

belong – належати

conclusion – висновок

fission –розщеплювання

ice – breaker – криголам

induce – викликати

installation – установка

key - ключ

lead (led) – вести, приводити

lose (lost) – втрачати

master – оволодівати

nuclear – ядерний

particle – частка

split (split) - розщеплювати

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання

  1. Where did Kurchatov begin to work?

  2. What discovery did the experiments of Kurchatov`s group lead to?

  3. Why was the neutron research program interrupted?

  4. When was the first atomic power plant put into operation?

  5. What reactor was this power generating installation based on?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски до тексту

  1. A group of ________________________ began investigating the physics of the nucleus of the atom.

  2. In 1940 I. Kurchatov came to the conclusion that _____________________.

  3. The USA lost ___________________.

  4. The secret of ______________ no longer existed.

  5. Later he was carried away by another great idea ______________________.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення до підкреслених українських.

1. проводити

a) to master

b) to put

c) to began

d) to conduct

2. оголосити

a) to decide

b) to suspend

c) to announce

d) to understand

3. криголам

a) a neutron

b) an ice – breaker

c) a reactor

d) monopoly

4. продовжувати

a) to belong

b) to continue

c) to lead

d) to work

5. досвід

a)experience

b) experiment

c) research

d) knowledge

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на українську мову та англійську групи слів, користуючись текстом.

a)

  1. маловідомі

  2. ядерна фізика

  3. ланцюгова реакція

  4. ядро атома

  5. існувати

b)

  1. to put into operation

  2. uranium – graphite reactor

  3. to split

  4. to suspend

  5. dielectrics

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам

  1. nucleus

  2. peace

  3. government

  4. famous

  5. to split

    1. The group of people who govern a country

    2. well – known, known to a lot of people

    3. a centre round which other parts are grouped

    4. to divide something up, to cut or chop it

    5. freedom from war

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту

  1. Kurchatov achieved great results in _______________________.

  2. The nuclear physics was in need of ________________________.

  3. World War II interrupted his work, and all research programs ___________.

  4. ______________ the scientists would continue their work in the field of ______________.

Unit 2 Lasers today and tomorrow.

The laser has become a multipurpose tool. It has caused a real revolution in technology.

Atoms emit rays of different length which prevents the forming of an intense beam of light. The laser forces its atoms to emit rays having the same length and traveling in the same direction. The result is a narrow, extremely intense beam of light that spreads out very little and is therefore able to travel very great distances.

The most common laser is the helium-neon laser in the laser tube, there being 10 per cent helium gas and 90 per cent neon gas. At the end of the tube there is a mirror, and at the other end there is a partial mirror. The electrons get energy from a power supply and become “excited”, giving off energy as light. This light is reflected by the mirror at one end of the tube. It can only escape through the partial mirror at the other end of the tube.

The first laser having been built in 1960, scientists developed several types of lasers make use of luminescent crystals, luminescent glass, a mixture of various gases and finally semiconductors.

Having been developed at the Lebedev Institute of Physics in 1962, semiconductor quantum generators occupy a special place among the optical generators. While the size of a ruby crystal laser comes to tens of centimeters and that of a gas generator is about a metre long, a semiconductor laser is a few tens of a millimeter long, the density of its radiation being hundreds of thousands of times greater than that, of the best ruby lasers.

But the most interesting thing about semiconductor lasers is that they are able to transform electric energy directly into light wave energy. They perform it with an efficiency approaching 100 per cent as compared with a maximum of about 1per cent of other lasers, this property of semiconductor lasers opening up new possibilities of producing extremely economical sources of light.

But it is in the field of communication that the laser will find its most extensive application in future. Scientists foresee the day when a single laser beam will be employed to carry simultaneously millions of telephone conversations or a thousand of television programmes. It will serve for fast communication across continents, under the sea, between the Earth and spaceship and between men traveling in space.

The potential importance of these applications continues to stimulate new development in the laser field.

Notes on the Text

  1. laser – слово лазер состоит из начальных букв фразы, описывающей функцию прибора: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation – усиление света в результате вынужденного излучения

  2. partial mirror – полупрозрачное стекло

  3. power supply – источник питания

Words to be learnt

approach v – наближуватися; досягати

beam n – промінь

carry v – передавати

compare v – порівнювати

density n – щільність

emit v – випромінювати

employ v – використовувати

extensive a – обширный

foresee (foresaw; foreseen) v – передбачувати

intense a – інтенсивний

mirror n – дзеркало

narrow a – вузький

prevent v – перешкоджати

single a – единий; один

spread (spread) v – росповсюджувати(ся)

travel v – рухатися

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання.

  1. What is the function of a laser?

  2. What beam of light does a laser produce?

  3. When was the first laser built?

  4. What type of laser is the most common at present?

  5. Where will a laser find the most extensive applications in future?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. The light is reflected by the ___________ at one end of the tube.

  2. Scientists ____________ several types of lasers.

  3. Atoms _________ rays of different length.

  4. In future a __________ laser beam will carry millions of telephone conversations.

  5. The laser will find its most extensive________ in future.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським.

1.знайти :

a) to serve;

b) to stimulate;

c) to perform;

d) to find.

2.випромінювання:

a) beam;

b) ray;

c) radiation;

d) energy.

3.суміш :

a) mixture;

b) source;

c) gas;

d) power.

4.відстань :

a) space;

b) light;

c) development;

d) distance.

5.декілька :

a) several;

b) the same;

c) single;

d) fast.

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на англійську та українську мову групи слів, користуючись текстом.

А) 1. багатоцільовий інструмент;

2. промінь світла;

3. світляні кристали;

4. рубіновий лазер;

5. напівпровідниковий лазер.

B) 1. extensive application;

2. to foresee the day;

3. revolution in technology;

4. the same length;

5. to occupy a special place.

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1.Mirror

a) to form an idea what is going to happen in the future.

2.Electron

b) a quality that belongs naturally to something.

3.To foresee

c) a piece of a glass that reflects images.

4.To prevent

d) one of the parts of an atom.

5.Property

e) to keep something from happening.

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту.

  1. The electrons get energy from a power supply and become “excited”, _______.

  2. Semiconductor quantum generators occupy a special place _________.

  3. Semiconductor lasers can transform electric energy directly into ________.

  4. The helium-neon laser comprises 10 per cent helium gas and ___________.

  5. The light in a laser is reflected by the mirror ________.

Unit 3 astronomical capital of the world.

Two great observatories, Greenwich and Pulkovo, occupy a leading place among the observatories of the world. Some scientists call Pulkovo the astronomical capital of the world.

Pulkovo is situated in a hilly area some kilometres from Leningrad. You can’t get to Pulkovo by train – when the railway was being built the astronomers specially asked that it should be kept several kilometres away so that there should be no vibration to affect the sensitive instruments.

The work started in 1839, when the observatory was opened, is being continued now. This is the eternal work of astronomers – to define the precise co-ordinates of the stars, to find out the exact “addresses” of heavenly bodies.

Today the scientists also conduct a time service, study activity of the Sun, follow the flights of the Earth sputniks and calculate their orbits. The scientists of the observatory have made a valuable contribution to the study of the cosmos by observing artificial Earth satellites, man-made moons. The study of their orbits is very important for the flights of manned space-ships.

The Pulkovo observatory has a radio-astronomy department equipped with modern apparatus. The big radio-telescope installed there is stronger than any other telescope in the world. With the help of this powerful device the scientists of the Pulkovo observatory carry out a number of observatories of Venus, Jupiter and other planets.

The astronomers have obtained extremely surprising results due to radio-astronomical observation. By means of the radio-telescope some remarkable studies of the surface of the Sun and of solar activity have been made and a method of investigating the movement of planets has been worked out.

Astronomical observation and cosmic experiments are spheres of scientific research in which broad co-operation of scientists of various countries would be most effective. Scientists, workers and technicians have produced and launched space rockets in the direction of the Moon, Venus and Mars and are fulfilling the noble dreams of mankind.

Notes on the Text

  1. have made a contribution – внесли вклад

  2. affect – впливати

  3. artificial – штучний

  4. device – прилад

  5. sensitive – чутливий

  6. remarkable – видатний

  7. exact – точний

  8. extremely – надзвичайно

  9. find out (found) – пізнати

  10. flight – політ

  11. follow – стежити

  12. fulfill- виконувати

  13. launch- запускати

  14. observe – спостерігати.

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання.

  1. What two observatories occupy a leading place among the observatories of the world?

  2. When was the observatory opened?

  3. What researches do the scientists conduct today?

  4. Is the big radio-telescope stronger than any other telescope in the world?

  5. What studies have been made by means of the radio-telescope?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски по тексту.

  1. Pulkovo is situated ____________ some kilometers from Leningrad.

  2. The study of their orbits ___________ of manned spaceships.

  3. The scientists of the Pulkovo observatory carry out a number of observations of ___________.

  4. By means of __________ a method of investigating the movement of planets has been worked out.

  5. Astronomical observation and ____________ are spheres of scientific research.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення до підкреслених українських.

1. співробітництво

a) mankind

b) co-operation

c) co-ordinate

d) man-made

2. сонячний

a) solar

b) sensitive

c) eternal

d) some

3. потужній

a) broad

b) active

c) modern

d) powerful

4. отримати

a) to make

b) to find

c) to obtain

d) to conduct

5. впливати

a) to affect

b) to produce

c) to define

d) to get

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на українську мову та англійську групи слів, користуючись текстом.

а)

  1. спостереження

  2. діяльність сонця

  3. виконувати

  4. наукове дослідження

  5. надзвичайно

b)

  1. the movement of planets

  2. equipped

  3. to follow the flights

  4. mankind

  5. to launch space rockets.

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1. planet

a. An instrument for seeing distant object more clearly.

2. railway

b. A building from which the stars and planets are observed through telescopes.

3. cosmos

c. A system of transport using tracks made of steel rails on which trains run.

4. telescope

d. A heavenly body which travels in orbit round a sun.

5. observatory

e. The universe.

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту.

  1. Some scientists call Pulkovo ___________.

  2. This is the eternal work of astronomers ___________.

  3. The Pulkovo observatory has a __________.

  4. The astronomers have obtained extremely surprising results __________.

  5. Scientists, workers and technicians are fulfilling _________.

Unit 4 The unique telescope.

For more than four centuries telescope has been the Earth’s window on the universe. But the views they give have been limited by the size and shape of the instruments. Now scientists in many countries are developing bigger telescopes that will enable astronomers to look deeper into the corners of the Universe. The main principle of a telescope is: the larger the mirror, the clearer and brighter the reflected image will be.

The world’s largest optical telescope is in the North Caucasus at 2,100 metres above the sea level. It was designed and created at the Leningrad Optical and Mechanical Association (LOMO). The main part of the telescope is the mirror which is six meters in diameter and weighs 42 tons. The mirror’s area is about 30 square metres and it has been polished to the highest degree of accuracy. The telescope is housed in a tower a revolving 1,000-ton dome.

Many countries have developed large-size optical telescope in the recent 30 years, but this telescope is the most powerful. The following gives an idea of what the telescope can do. With this telescope a candle flame can be seen from a distance of 25,000 km. Its power is 40-50 million times greater than that of a naked eye. With this telescope astronomers can investigate the most remote bodies in the Universe, it will help to solve many important scientific problems, to make a great contribution to the mankind’s knowledge. Astronomers have used the telescope to take several unique photographs of stars. The development of this unique telescope is a great achievement of science and technology.

Words to be learnt

association n – об’єднання

candle flame – полум’я свічки

clear a – ясний

dome n – купол

image n – зображення

mirror n – дзеркало

naked eye – невооруженный глаз

polish v – полірувати

recent a – недавній; зд. останній

remote a – віддалений

tower n – вежа

view n – вид, картина

Завдання 1.Дайте відповіді на запитання.

  1. What is the main principle of a telescope?

  2. Where is the world’s largest optical telescope situated?

  3. What is the main part of an optical telescope?

  4. What can astronomers investigate with this unique telescope?

  5. Where is the telescope housed?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. For a long time telescopes were the Earth’s ________on the Universe.

  2. Now scientists in many countries are developing ________ telescopes.

  3. Large telescopes enable astronomers _______ deeper into the Universe.

  4. The largest telescope is situated at _________ above the sea level.

  5. The mirror of the telescope is six metres ________ and weighs 42 tons.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським.

1. вежа:

a) view;

b) tower;

c) square;

d) body.

2. важити:

a) to solve;

b) to develop;

c) to give;

d) to weigh.

3. віддалений:

a) limited;

b) deep;

c) remote;

d) clear.

4. відстань:

a) image;

b) level;

c) distance;

d) contribution.

5. досліджувати:

a) to use;

b) to investigate;

c) to enable;

d) to reflect.

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на англійську та українську мову групи слів, користуючись текстом.

А)1. вікно у Всесвіт;

2. розробити телескоп;

3. головний принцип;

4. відбите зображення;

5. понад рівнем моря.

B)1. mirror’s area;

2. the highest degree of accuracy;

3. a candle flame;

4. a naked eye;

5. to solve problems;

Завдання 5.Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1. Telescope

a) the successful finishing or gaining of something

2. Universe

b) long instrument with lenses for making distant objects appear nearer and larger

3. Dome

c) stick of wax containing a string, which gives light when it burns

4. Achievement

d) rounded roof with a circular base

5. Candle

e) all space and the matter which exists in it

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту.

  1. Many countries have developed large-size optical telescopes __________.

  2. The unique telescope in the Caucasus is the most ______________.

  3. Its power is 50 million times greater than that of __________.

  4. This telescope will help to make a great contribution ___________.

  5. Astronomers have used the telescope to take several ______________.

Unit 5 Hydrogen – source of power.

Scientists consider hydrogen a very promising energy source. The reserves of hydrogen are practically unlimited. Per unit of weight it contains almost three times-more thermal energy than benzene. Besides, hydrogen can be used as fuel in transport, industry and home.

Hydrogen is easy to transport and store. It can be transported over large distances using conventional pipelines. It can be accumulated and kept for a long time either in conventional or natural reservoirs.

Scientists have found many ways of producing hydrogen – basically from ordinary water. And large volumes of this fuel can be obtained from coal, whose global reserves are tremendous. There is also an idea of using nuclear power plants to generate hydrogen. Scientists hope to use the energy of the sun, wind and tides to obtain hydrogen.

In several countries car engines fed by hydrogen have been tested successfully. Tests have also shown that adding five to ten per cent hydrogen to benzene increases engine efficiency by 40-45 per cent.

What is still holding back the use of hydrogen as fuel, and what has to be done in order to apply it extensively in the economy? The main reason is that now it is more expensive than mineral fuels, but in the near future hydrogen can be made cheaper to obtain. This new kind of energy opens up new prospects in aviation, metallurgy and some other industries.

Words to be learnt

add v – додати

accumulate v – накопичувати

consider v – рахувати

engine n – двигун

feed v – живити

hold back (held) v – затримувати

hope v – надіятися

keep (kept) v - зберігати

nuclear power plant – атомна електростанція

pipeline n – трубопровід

reason n – причина

store v – накопичувати

Завдання 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання.

  1. How great are the reserves of hydrogen?

  2. Where can hydrogen be used?

  3. What can be used to transport hydrogen over long distances?

  4. What is the main way of obtaining hydrogen?

  5. In what industries can hydrogen be used in future?

Завдання 2.Заповніть пропуски, користуючись змістом тексту.

  1. Scientists consider __________ a very promising energy source.

  2. Hydrogen contains _____________ times more thermal energy than benzene.

  3. Hydrogen is _____________ to transport and store.

  4. Scientists have found many ______________ of producing hydrogen.

  5. Now hydrogen is more _______________ than mineral fuels.

Завдання 3.Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським.

1. джерело :

a) reserve;

b) resource;

c) source;

d) plant.

2. звичайний :

a) promising;

b) conventional;

c) cheap;

d) efficient.

3. сподіватися :

a) to hope;

b) represent;

c) remain;

d) resist.

4. паливо :

a) oil;

b) tide;

c) way;

d) fuel.

5. двигун :

a) energy;

b) engine;

c) kind;

d) car.

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на англійську та українську мову групи слів, користуючись текстом.

А) 1. джерело енергії;

2. практично безмежний;

3. на одиницю ваги;

4. впродовж тривалого часу;

5. збільшити ефективність.

В) 1. new prospects;

2. mineral fuel;

3. in order to;

4. ordinary water;

5. to generate hydrogen.

Завдання 5.Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1.Hydrogen

a) a long line of pipes for carrying liquids or gas to distant places

2.Reserve

b)to make or become greater in number or quantity

3.To accumulate

c) gas that combines with oxygen to form water

4.Wind

d) a store kept for future use

5. Pipe-line

e) air in motion as a result of natural forces

Завдання 6.Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту

  1. In the near future hydrogen will be cheaper ______________.

  2. In some countries car engines fed by hydrogen were tested ______________.

  3. There is an idea of using nuclear power plants ______________.

  4. The reserves of hydrogen are ___________.

  5. Hydrogen can be obtained from coal, whose _____________.

Unit 6 Today’s astonishing computers.

Not long ago computers were not very reliable and comparatively slow in operation. Since then, several generations of complex electronic computing equipment have been developed, each being significantly better than the one before it. Almost every day a new use is found for these astonishing devices to help man.

We know a computer to be a complex electronic device that can store and process vast quantities of information. Following instructions, computing equipment will perform calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and provide the answers to a large variety of problems in a tiny fraction of time.

A computer is known to be the “heart” of an electronic data processing system, other parts of equipment being auxiliary.

There a two main types of computing equipment – digital and analogue. They work differently and yield different results. The digital computer is performing a much broader range of functions than the analogue one.

The analogue computer, as its name implies, produces analogues or parallels of the process to be described or the problem to be solved. Both the digital and the analogue computers must be “programmed”. This means they must be set up in such a way that they can produce a result from the information fed into them, and the information itself must be organized so it can handled by the machines. These devices working by electronic impulses perform at fantastic speed and with great precision.

Looking to the future, computer makers see no end to the things they would like to accomplish. The computer of the future seems to be developed by using bionics – biological functions of plants and animals – as a guide in designing electronic circuits.

Nowadays computer makers are working at the problem of introducing small computers into our everyday life making them personal. They are trying to develop a computer that will understand human language.

Each new generation of computers opens up new possibilities for basic and applied research.

Notes on the Text

  1. tiny fraction of time – очень короткий период времени.

  2. data processing system – система обработки информации.

Words to be Learnt

accomplish v – здійснювати

auxiliary a – допоміжний

data n – данні, інформація

describe v – описувати

digital a – цифровий

generation n – покоління

plant n – рослина

precision n – точність

process v – обробляти

range n – діапазон

reliable a – надійний

set up (set) v – організовувати

yield v – видавати; виробляти

Завдання 1. Дайте відповідь на запитання.

  1. What were the computers like not long ago?

  2. Have they been developed since that time?

  3. What is a computer?

  4. What calculations can a computer perform?

  5. What two types of computers do you know?

Завдання 2. Заповніть пропуски користуючись текстом.

  1. A computer is the “__________” of an electronic data processing system.

  2. The digital computer performs much broader _________ of functions than the analogue one.

  3. Both computers __________ be programmed.

  4. Computers can produce a result from the ___________ fed into them.

  5. Each new generation of computers opens up new ___________ for basic and applied research.

Завдання 3. Доберіть відповідні англійські слова та словосполучення підкресленим українським.

1. допоміжний

a) analogue

b) parallel

c) digital

d) auxiliary

2. обробляти

a) to process

b) to develop

c) to work

d) to try

3. складний

a) several

b) every

с) complex

d) main

4. надійний

a) reliable

b) basic

c) fantastic

d) broad

5. тварина

a) plant

b) person

c) human

d) animal

Завдання 4. Перекладіть на англійську та українську мову групи слів, користуючись текстом.

А) 1. дуже надійний ;

2. декілька поколінь;

3. електронне обладнання ;

4. з величезною точністю;

5. дивлячись в майбутнє.

В) 1. significantly better;

2. computing equipment;

3. in such a way;

4. human language;

5. everyday life.

Завдання 5. Дайте вірні визначення наступним словам.

1. Instruction

a) very small

2. Tiny

b) an instrument that is cleverly thought out

3. To understand

c) a single stage in the development of something

4. Generation

d) an order or advice on how to do something

5. Device

e) to know or get the meaning of something

Завдання 6. Доповніть речення згідно зі змістом тексту.

  1. Now computer makers introduce small computers into our life _________.

  2. Each new generation of computers is significantly better than _________.

  3. Every day a new use is found for computers _____________.

  4. Computers provide the answers to a large variety of problems _________.

  5. Digital analogue computers work differently and yield ___________.

Навчальні тексти для реферування

Niels Henrik David Bohr (1885-1962, Denmark)

Bohr is regarded by many as the founder of the modern atomic theory and certainly his theory of the hydrogen atom and the origin of spectra as published in 1913-1915 in the Philosophical Magazine has had a profound influence on all subsequent work and thought in that field. The Bohr theory has also been of great value in the study of the chemical and physical properties of atoms and in their periodic relationships. In 1911 Bohr received the doctor's degree from the University of Copenhagen, after which he studied with J.J. Thomson and Rutherford in England. In 1916 he became professor of physics at his "alma mater" and in 1920, director of the newly founded Institute of Theoretical Physics at that institution.

During World War II he worked on the atomic bomb project in the United States. In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics and in addition he received many other medals and honours among which was an honourable membership of Moscow University.

Heathrow, London’s Airport

International travel has completely changes for the last 30 years. Crossing the world is as easy as getting from one side of a city to another. The world of air travel has developed into a huge industry.

London`s Heathrow is one of greatest airports of the world. It tops the list of both international flights and international passengers. In 1989, it handled 355,000 flights and over 38 million passengers with 57 million items of luggage. It has grown into a city in its own right, employing 53,000 people full time.

Like all the great airports, it dates back only to the last days of the Second World War.

The first runway was built on the flat land near the village of Staines in 1944. It was a place of historic interest. One of the most important Anglo-Saxon temples is buried under Terminal Two, and the village of Heathrow is now under the main car park. The airport has ghosts. A Saxon prince has been seen near the ponds, where he drowned, and an outlaw rides through the cargo sheds, with a three-cornered hat and a black horse. Heathrow has been operating as an international airport since 1 January 1946, when a British South American Airways Lancastrian took off into the morning mists on a flight to Buenos Aires. In February 1952, the Queen arrived from Entebbe to set foot on British soil for the first time as monarch.

Since those early days, constant building has been necessary to deal with the growth of air traffic and the demands of air travellers. How­ever, Heathrow shares the same problems as all big airports - too many planes, too many people, and too much crime. It is the centre-point of the great air routes between Europe and North America in one direction, and between Europe and the Gulf, Africa, and Asia in the other. It is alive with all the citizens of this strange world, rich and poor, honest and dishonest. It is the Airport International par excellence.

The Temperature Scales

The scientist finds two temperature scales the most convenient. They are the centigrade (or Celsius) scale and the absolute (or Kelvin) scale. Many engineers use the Fahrenheit scale (currently in the United States). The oldest thermometric scale was devised by Gabriel Fahrenheit, a German instrument-maker. In 1714 Fahrenheit invented the mercury-in-glass thermometer. Zero degree on the lowest temperature obtainable with a mixture of common salt and water. For a higher reference point he selected the body temperature of a healthy man. The interval between reference points was divided into 96 equal parts.

The centigrade scale was devised in 1742 by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, who reasoned that water would make an excellent primary thermal standard. For convenience, he established the zero point on his scale at the freezing point of water and the 100-degree mark at its boiling point. Both temperatures are measured at one atmosphere pressure on air-saturated water. The relationship is (°F) = 1.80 x (°C) + 32.0

Lord Kelvin in 1848 used his knowledge of the behavior of gases to predict a temperature that would represent the lowest energetic state in which matter could exist. Theoretical predictions based on thermodynamics indicate that absolute zero can never be attained. Temperatures (T) on the absolute scale are measured in degrees Kelvin (K) in his honour. The size of the degree is identical with that on the centigrade scale. The relationship is (°K) = (°C) + 273.16

Cambridge

Cambridge is one of the two main universities of England which is located at the Cam River. It was founded at the beginning of the 12th century. The University consists of 24 different colleges including 4 colleges for women. Each college is self-governing.

The head of the University is the chancelor who is elected for life. The teachers are commonly called «dons» and «tutors». Part of the teaching is by means of lectures organized by the University. Besides lectures teaching is carried out by tutorial system for which Cambridge University is famous all over the world. This is a system of individual tuition organized by the colleges. Each student has a tutor who practically guides him through the whole course of studies. The tutor plans the student's work and once a week the student goes to his tutor to discuss his work with him. The training course lasts 4 years. The academic year is divided into 3 terms. The students study natural and technical sciences, law, history, languages, geography and many other subjects.

After three years of study a student may proceed to a Bachelor's degree, and later to the degrees of Master and Doctor. Students are required to wear gowns at lectures, in the University library, in the street in the evening, for dinners in the colleges and for official visits. All the students must pay for their education, examinations, books, laboratories, univer­sity hostel, the use of libraries, etc. Very few students get grants. Not many children from the working class families are able to get higher education, as the cost is high. The cost of education depends on the college and speciality.

A number of great men, well-known scientists and writers studied at Cambridge. Among them are: Erasmus, the great Dutch scholar, Bacon, the philosopher, Milton and Byron, the poets, Cromwell, the soldier, Newton and Darwin, the scientists.

Ecological Problems of Big Cities

There are over 150 supercities in the world with population from one to 15 million and more. Tokyo, New York, London, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro and Moscow are just a few of the cities which have become supercities.

People in the supercities suffer from polluted environment: bad water, bad air and noise. A new term, urban (городской) climate, is used now for such cities. It means high temperature, oppressive atmosphere and intensive smog.

Some experts consider that it is practically impossible to protect the big cities from pollution. The World Health Organization (WHO) studied air pollution around the world for over eight years. It measured two things: the level of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the air and the level of smoke. Sulphur dioxide and smoke pollute water and have serious effect on forest, buildings and health of people. In the WHO report it is shown that the cities with the most considerable level of CO2 in the air are Milan, Teheran, Prague, Santiago and San Paulo. However, some cities with clean air get worse in winter. Helsinki, for example, becomes one of the cities with the largest proportion of it in the air in winter. This must be connected with the heating of houses. One can also mention Glasgow and Warsaw which suffer in the same way.

Mass Production

Car manufacturer Henry Ford laid the foundation for the revolutionary change in the entire motor vehicle industry.

The key for mass production was not the moving assembly line. It was the complete interchangeability of parts and the simplicity of attaching them to each other. These were the innovations that made the assembly line possible. Taken together, they gave Ford tremendous advantage over his competitors.

Ford's first efforts to assemble his cars, beginning in 1903, were to set up assembly stands on which a whole car was built. Each assembler performed many jobs on one car and had to get the neces­sary parts for it.

The first step Ford took to make this process more efficient was to deliver the parts to each work station. Now each assembler remained in the same place all day. Later in 1908 Ford decided that each assembler would perform only one task and move around the factory from car to car. In 1913 cars were placed on a moving assembly line. Each assembler performed one task only and remained stationary. This innovation cut cycle time from 2.3 minutes to 1.19 minutes, thus dramatically improving productivity.

Ford's discovery simultaneously reduced the amount of human effort needed to assemble an automobile. What is more, the more vehicles Ford produced, the more the cost per vehicle fell. In the early 1920s Ford produced 2 million identical vehicles a year.

Ford's mass production was adopted in almost every industrial activity in America and Europe.

The Greenhouse effect

Gases pollute the atmosphere because they are produced too quickly to be cleared away naturally by rain, winds or plant life. These poisonous gases come from several sources such as oil producers, industries which burn fuel, and motor vehicles. When the gases are released, they have two harmful effects. Firstly, some of the gases are caught by rain clouds and fall as acid rain, which damages the environment. Secondly, increasing amounts of carbon dioxide forms a cover over the earth, keeping the heat of the sun close to the earth’s surface just like a greenhouse keeps heat in. The increase in carbon dioxide is made worse by the cutting down of forests. Trees use carbon dioxide, and the fewer trees there are, the more of this gas remains in the air. The USA is now leading an international effort to limit deforestation. In 1996, Washington set goals for industry, and several international agreements have already been effective in reducing the production of harmful gases. Only international cooperation can solve this problem which, if not controlled, may threaten all life on earth.

Efforts made to protect the environment

There are many problems which threaten our natural environment. New laws have been introduced to stop factories polluting the atmosphere because pollution is damaging our environment. The ozone layer is getting thinner so more and more people are getting skin cancer. But acid rain, global warming and air and water pollution are among the most serious problems. There are several ways to help improve the situation. Firstly, we should encourage recycling because it is the production of new materials which causes the most damage. We must learn to reuse things like plastic bags and glass jars. Secondly, driving an environmentally-friendly car is also helpful. Furthermore, joining an organisation reuse which plants trees or cleans up beaches would be proof that you are really concerned about the environment. Lastly, supporting groups such as Greenpeace, which try to prevent many environmental disasters, would help to ensure that our planet will be clean and safe for future generations.

Training astronauts

Astronauts have to be physically and mentally ready for the stress and strain of a space mission. To prepare them, astronauts are given intensive training, which includes years of classroom study on various technical subjects, and working in a model spaceship where they can practice complicated flight operations and become used to all the equipment on board. Apart from high intelligence, good qualifications and an excellent level of fitness, astronauts must have a strong character. They also have to be very courageous in order to accept the high risks involved. Astronauts also have to face other, more ordinary problems in space. What can be very annoying is the limited variety of food, but the greatest challenge is getting along with other members of their team as they often come from different countries, with different backgrounds and habits. Therefore they must be very patient with each other, since the lack of privacy can become irritating. All in all, it seems that being an astronaut is one of the most challenging jobs in the world.

Tourism: advantages and disadvantages

Have you ever thought about the effect tourism can have on an area? It may seem, at first, that tourism brings only benefits, but further consideration shows that it also has negative effects. On the positive side, tourism provides employment. Many local people find jobs in hotels and restaurants, and shopkeepers have more customers. What is more, the extra income means that local councils have more money to spend on expanding and improving their facilities, thus making them better for both visitors and residents. On the other hand, tourism can do a great deal of harm. For example, pollution is caused both by the increase in traffic and the litter that visitors leave behind. In addition, local traditions and lifestyles are replaced by new customs and habits. This creates confusion among the local people and causes conflicts between young and old. In conclusion, an area can benefit from tourism in many ways. However, it can also do a great deal of harm, and local residents should be aware of this before deciding to encourage it.

History of education

1. As long as we live we continue to learn, and the education we receive when we are young helps us to continue learning. We are taught to read and write, and are taught many of the essential facts about the world and shown how to sort them out so that later in life, we shall be able to find out things ourselves and not to ask other people.

The first teachers were fathers and mothers, but very early in the history of man children began to be taught by people other than their fathers and mothers. It is thought that schools first started in Egypt 5,000 to 6,000 years ago, and that it was the invention of writing which made them necessary. Reading and writing were quite different from the skills used in everyday life, and writing made it possible to store up knowledge which grew with each generation. Specially trained people were therefore needed to teach it.

2. Only the sons of nobles attended the first Egyptian schools, which taught reading, physical education and good behaviour. In ancient India the priestly caste decided what should be taught to each of the four castes, or groups, into which people were divided.

Only the priestly caste was allowed to learn the Hindu scriptures. In China, until the 19th century, education was organized according to social classes, and consisted largely of learning the scriptures by heart.

3. A clear example of the way in which even neighbouring peoples produce different types of education comes from ancient Greece. Sparta and Athens were two Greek states. The Spartans, hard and warlike people, gave a purely military education to their children. At the age of seven all boys of noble families were taken from their homes and sent to live in schools. They were kept under a very strict discipline and were taught hunting, military scouting, swimming and the use of weapons. The Spartans despised literature, and some people think they could not even read.

At the very same time, also for the nobles only, the Athenians were building what we call a liberal education – one that helps a man to develop all sides of his nature, helps him to make and appreciate beautiful things and helps him to find the best way of life. They thought it important to educate the body as well as the mind, and had a programme of physical training which consisted of running, jumping, wresting and throwing the discus. As time went on Athenian education paid special attention to reading, writing and literature and these were taught by a special teacher, known as the "grammatist". Common people were not educated; they were trained in craftsmanship, workmanship, trades.

Greek philosophers, or thinkers, always discussed what education should try to do and what it should include. Plato wrote a book called The Republic, which is one of the best books ever written on education, and since those days Greek ideas have influenced European education, especially secondary and university education.

Air pollution and smog are the problems of modern cities

The word smog comes from smoke and fog. Smog is a sort of fog with other substances mixed in. Smog has been here a long time. Billions of years ago, volcanoes sent millions of tons of ash and smoke into the air. Winds whipped up dust clouds. Animal and vegetable matter decayed, adding polluting gases.

When people came along, they began to produce their own kind of air pollution. They discovered fire. In the Middle Ages, people in cities such as London used soft coal to heat their homes. The smoke from these fires, combined with moisture in the air, produced dense layers of smog. The smog would blanket the city for days, particularly in winter. The heat generated in large cities tends to circulate air within a dome-like shape. This traps the smog and holds it over the city.

Smog, and the chemicals and other substances in it, can be harmful, even deadly. Smog blurs vision. It irritates the eyes, the throat, and the lungs. Eyes water, throats get sore, people cough. Smog can make people ill. And it can make sick people sicker. Air pollution has been linked to eczema, asthma, emphysema, cardiovascular difficulties, and lung and stomach cancer. It also has a harmful effect on the environment. Food crops and animals suffer. Paint may peel from houses. It is obvious that we must do everything possible to reduce man-made atmospheric pollutants and smog.

Smog, along with smoke, is the most visible evidence of atmospheric pollution. But some atmospheric pollution is not visible and may not become visible until it is mixed with moisture. Lead compounds from leaded gasoline, hydrocarbons (unburned gasoline), carbon monoxide, and other gases may pollute the air without being seen. All air is polluted to some extent. That is, all air carries some polluting substances. Much of it is natural: smoke and ash from volcanoes, dust stirred up by the wind, compounds given off by growing vegetation, gases given off by rotting animal and vegetable matter, salt particles from the oceans, and so on.

The wheel, steam carriages and railways

One of mankind’s earliest and greatest inventions was the wheel. Without it there could be no industry, little transportation or communication, only crude farming, no electric power.

Nobody knows when the wheel was invented. There is no trance of the wheel during the Stone Age, and it was not known to the American Indians until the White Man came. In the Old World it came into use during the Bronze Age, when horses and oxen were used as work animals. At first all wheels were solid discs.

The problem to be solved was to make the wheels lighter and at the came time keep them strong. At first holes were made in the wheels, and they became somewhat lighter. Then wheels with spokes were made. Finally, the wheel was covered with iron and then with rubber.

Light two-wheeled carriages were used widely in the ancient world. As time passed they were made lighter, stronger, and better. Later people joined together a pair of two-wheeled carts into a four-wheeled vehicle. At first only kings and queens had the privilege of driving in them.

In the West first steam carriage was invented in France. The three-wheeled machine had the front wheel driven by a two-cylinder steam engine, and carried two people along the road at a walking pace. It was not a great success, as the boiler did not produce enough steam for keeping the carriage going for more than about 15 minutes.

The steam engine appeared in 1763. It was followed by several improved steam road carriages. Their further development was prevented by railway companies. The rapid spread of railways in the United Kingdom was due largely to George Stephenson, who was an enthusiast as well as a brilliant engineer.

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