D) the french element.
Loan-words adopted through the conquest of England by the Norman French, no doubt, most important foreign adoptions in the English vocabulary. Norman-French borrowings had come into English at different times. French loans in English vocabulary may be subdivided into two main groups: 1) early loans - 12th -15th centuries; 2) later loans -beginning from the 16lh century. Early French loans were thoroughly naturalized in English and made to conform to the rules of English pronunciation: a) words stressed in French on the final syllable are now stressed in English on the first syllable e.g. capital, danger, final, mercy; b) the long [u:] written ou has become [au], e.g. spouse pronounced [spuz] is now pronounced [spauz].
The French dominance is particularly felt in the vocabulary of law. Most words pertaining to law are of French origin: e.g. Accuse, court, fee, guile, heritage, judge, justice
Many terms relating to military matters are also of French origin: arms, admiral, armour, battle, navy, soldier, troops, vessel, etc Many French borrowings connected with church can be find in English vocabulary: blame, pray, service, tempt, etc In the vocabulary of cookery: boil, jelly, fry, roast, pastry, soup, toast, etc.
The large number of borrowed words in English is from French source, the Latin words stand next in order of numbers.
Source of borrowing and origin of borrowing.
The term "source of borrowing" should be distinguished from the term "origin of borrowing". The term "source of borrowing" should be applied to the language from which the loan word was taken into English. The term "origin of borrowing" refers to the language to which the word may be traced. Thus, the word paper < Fr. Papier < Lat. Papyrus <Gr. papyros has French as its source of borrowing and Greek as its origin.
Translation loans denotes the words and expressions formed from the material available in the language after the patterns characteristic of the given language.but under the influence of some foreign words and expressions. (e.g.«mother tongue» - Lat. «lingua materna», «wall newspaper* - Rus. CieHraaera)
The term «assimilation of a loan word» is used to denote a partial and total conformation to the phonetical,graphical and morpholigical standards of the receiving language and its semantic system.The degree of assimilation depends upon the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving language.Oral borrowings due to personal contacts are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings.
According to the degree of assimilation classification of loan words is the following:
1) completely assimilated;
2) partially assimilated;
3) unassimilated loan words or barbarisms.
1.Completely assimilated loan words are found in all the layers of older borrowings. They may belong to the first layer of Latin borrow-ings.e. g. Cheese, street, wine. Scandinavian as husband, fellow, gate, verbs as call, die, take, want and adjectives like happy, ill, wrong.Completely assimilated French words are extremely numerous and frequent.
2. Second group containing partially assimilated loan words can be subdivided into subgroups.
a) words not assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come: mantilla, sombrero: titles: shah, rajah, sheik, bei, foreign vehicles: rickshaw, food: sherbet.
b) loan words not assimilated phonetically. For example some French words keep the accent on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, police. Some of them, alongside with peculiarities in stress, contain sounds or combination of sounds that are not standard for the English language and do not occur in native words: [ ] - bourgeois, camouflage, prestige, [ wa: ]- as in memoir.
c) words not completely assimilated graphically. This group is fairly large. E.g. words borrowed from French in which the final consonant is not pronounced (ballet, buffet).
One and the same loan word often shows incomplete assimilation in several respects simultaneously.
3.The third group of borrowings comprises the so-called barba risms, i.e. words from other languages used by English people in con versation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents. The examples are; the Ital ian 'addio, ciao', the French 'affiche' for 'placard', the Latin 'exampli gratia'for 'for example' and the like.
TYPES OF ASSIMILATION: a) phonetic assimilation; b) grammatical assimilation;
c) lexical assimilation,
Phonetic assimilation of lexics of foreign origin is in adaptation of phonemes and their combinations to the English phonetic standard.
In loan-words from Latin for example: butyrum ( Lat) - butere (butter).
French borrowings such as: ballet, buffet reproduce unusual endings with the help of diphthong [ ei].
Grammatical assimilation Borrowings introduced into English lost the former grammatical categories and inflections and acquired new grammatical characteristics by analogy with other English words. Some words have two plural forms: the native and the foreign (Lat Vacuum-vacua-vacuums)-вакуум, nycтота.
Many Latin Participle I ending in 'ent' became adjectives in English (innocent, patient), some of them became nouns (accident, incident) Many infinitives of the French verbs resembled in their ending English nouns, and they became nouns.
Lexical assimilation Polysemantic words are usually adopted only one or two of their meanings (tembre [te:mbr] that had a number of meanings in French, in English is borrowed only as a musical term). The borrowings are changed and specialized in the new system. Sometimes the primary meaning of word becomes secondary meaning. (The primary meaning "fellow" -companian, comrade, this primary meaning was replaced by the meaning that appeared in New English a man or a boy").
Etymological Doublets. Etymological doublets are two or more words of the same language which were derived by different routs from the same basic word. They differ to a certain degree in form, meaning and current usage. Two words at present slightly differentiated in meaning may have originally been dialectical variants of the same word. Thus we find in doublets traces of Old English dialects.
E.g.whole (in old sense of 'healthy' or 'free from disease') and hale. The latter has survived in its original meaning and is preserved in the phrase hale and hearty (міцний та здоровий). Both come from O.E. hal: the one by the normal development of OE a into o, the other form of the northern dialect in which this modification did not take place.
As an example of the same foreign word that has been borrowed twice at different times the doublets castle and chateau may be mentioned. Both words come from the Latin castellum 'fort'. This word passed into the northern dialect of Old French as castel, which was borrowed into Middle English as castle. In the Parisian dialect of Old F:rench, on the other hand, it became chastel (a Latin hard c regularly became c/i in Central Old French). In Modern French chastel became chateaux and was then separately borrowed into English, meaning 'a French castle or a big country house').
1) Words descended from the same root: senior (Lat.)- sir (Fr.), canal (Lat.) - channel (Fr.).
2) Words borrowed from the same language twice but in different periods.
3) A doublet consists of a shortened word and word from which it derived: history- story, fantasy- fancy, fanatic- fan.
Hybrids. Words that are made of elements derived from two or more different languages are called hybrids. The contacts of English with various foreign languages has led to the adoption of numberless derivative morphemes, suffixes and prefixes. The addition of foreign suffixes to native words often involves assimilation of a structural pattern not only the borrowing of lexical element.
Hybrid types of composites are different in character: a)foreign words combined with a native affix: clear- ness, faith-ful, use-les, unable; b)foreign affixes added to native words: break-able, per-haps, recall.
Observation of English vocabulary, which is probably richer in hybrids than that of any other European language, shows a great variety of patterns. In some cases it is the borrowed affixes that are used with native stems, or vice versa. A word can simultaneously contain borrowed and native affixes.
Examples: The suffix of the personal noun -ist derived from the Greek agent suffix - istes forms part of many hybrids. Sometimes (like in artist, dentist) it was borrowed as a hybrid already (Fr. Dentiste< Lat. dentis 'tooth' + ist). In other cases the mixing process took place on English soil, as in fatalist (from Lat.fatalis), or tobaconist 'deales in tobacco'(an irregular formation from Sp Tobaco).
International words. As the process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of new notions which the loan words serve to express, it is natural that the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from ultimate source are called international words.
All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social changes and various contacts between nations.
International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. The mankind' s cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, aria, baritone, concert, duet, opera.
The international wordstock is also growing due to the inflex of exotic words like anaconda, bungalow, sari They come from different sources.
International words cannot be mixed with words of common Indo-European stock. We must know the points of similarity and difference between such words as: control, general, magazine which are called 'translator's false friends'
A lot of English words came into other languages: of sport: football, out, match, time: of clothes pullover, sweater, nylon, tweed: of cinema and entertainment: film, club, cocktail, jazz