Chapter Seven

Inquiry and innovation in science and medicine

The United States came into being during the Age of Enlightenment (circa 1680 to 1800), a period in which writers and thinkers rejected the superstitions of the past. Instead, they emphasized the powers of reason and unbiased inquiry, especially inquiry into the workings of the natural world. Enlightenment philosophers envisioned a "republic of science," where ideas would be exchanged freely and useful knowledge would improve the lot of all citizens.

From its emergence as an independent nation, the United States has encouraged science and invention. It has done this by promoting a free flow of ideas, by encouraging the growth of "useful knowledge," and by welcoming creative people from all over the world.

The United States Constitution itself reflects the desire to encourage scientific creativity. It gives Congress the power "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries." This clause formed the basis for the U.S. patent and copyright systems, which ensured that inventions and other creative works could not be copied or used without the creator's receiving some kind of compensation.

A GOOD CLIMATE FOR SCIENCE

In the early decades of its history, the United States was relatively isolated from Europe and also rather poor. Nonetheless, it was a good place for science. American science was closely linked with the needs of the people, and it was free from European preconceptions.

Two of America's founding fathers were scientists of some repute. Benjamin Franklin conducted a series of experiments that deepened human understanding of electricity. Among other things, he proved what had been suspected but never before shown: that lightning is a form of electricity. Franklin also invented such conveniences as bifocal eyeglasses and a stove that bears his name. (The Franklin stove fits into a fireplace and circulates heat into the adjacent room.)

Thomas Jefferson was a student of agriculture who introduced various types of rice, olive trees, and grasses into the New World. He stressed the scientific aspect of the Lewis and Clark expedition (1804-06), which explored the Pacific Northwest, and detailed, systematic information on the region's plants and animals was one of that expedition's legacies.

Like Franklin and Jefferson, most American scientists of the late 18th century were involved in the struggle to win American independence and forge a new nation. These scientists included the astronomer David Rittenhouse, the medical scientist Benjamin Rush, and the natural historian Charles Willson Peale.

During the American Revolution, Rittenhouse helped design the defenses of Philadelphia and built telescopes and navigation instruments for the United States' military services. After the war, Rittenhouse designed road and canal systems for the state of Pennsylvania. He later returned to studying the stars and planets and gained a worldwide reputation in that field.

As surgeon general, Benjamin Rush saved countless lives of soldiers during the Revolutionary War by promoting hygiene and public health practices. By introducing new medical treatments, he made the Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia an example of medical enlightenment, and after his military service, Rush established the first free clinic in the United States.

Charles Willson Peale is best remembered as an artist, but he also was a natural historian, inventor, educator, and politician. He created the first major museum in the United States, the Peale Museum in Philadelphia, which housed the young nation's only collection of North American natural history specimens. Peale excavated the bones of an ancient mastodon near West Point, New York; he spent three months assembling the skeleton, and then displayed it in his museum. The Peale Museum started an American tradition of making the knowledge of science interesting and available to the general public.

American political leaders' enthusiasm for knowledge also helped ensure a warm welcome for scientists from other countries. A notable early immigrant was the British chemist Joseph Priestley, who was driven from his homeland because of his dissenting politics. Priestley, who came to the United States in 1794, was the first of thousands of talented scientists who emigrated in search of a free, creative environment. Others who came more recently have included the German theoretical physicist Albert Einstein, who arrived in 1933; Enrico Fermi, who came from Italy in 1938 and who produced the world's first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction; and Vladimir K. Zworykin, who left Russia in 1919 and later invented the television camera.

Other scientists had come to the United States to take part in the nation's rapid growth. Alexander Graham Bell, who arrived from Scotland by way of Canada in 1872, developed and patented the telephone and related inventions. Charles P. Steinmetz, who came from Germany in 1889, developed new alternating-current electrical systems at General Electric Company. Later, other scientists were drawn by America's state-of-the-art research facilities. By the early decades of the 20th century, scientists working in the United States could hope for considerable material, as well as intellectual, rewards.

AMERICAN KNOW-HOW

During the 19th century, Britain, France, and Germany were at the forefront of new ideas in science and mathematics. But if the United States lagged behind in the formulation of theory, it excelled in using theory to solve problems: applied science. This tradition had been born of necessity. Because Americans lived so far from the well-springs of Western science and manufacturing, they often had to figure out their own ways of doing things. When Americans combined theoretical knowledge with "Yankee ingenuity," the result was a flow of important inventions. The great American inventors include Robert Fulton (the steamboat); Samuel F.B. Morse (the telegraph); Eli Whitney (the cotton gin); Cyrus McCormick (the reaper); and Thomas Alva Edison, the most fertile of them all, with more than a thousand inventions credited to his name.

Edison was not always the first to devise a scientific application, but he was frequently the one to bring an idea to a practical finish. For example, the British engineer Joseph Swan built an incandescent electric lamp in 1860, almost 20 years before Edison. But Edison's was better. Edison's light bulbs lasted much longer than Swan's, and they could be turned on and off individually, while Swan's bulbs could be used only in a system where several lights were turned on or off at the same time. Edison followed up his improvement of the light bulb with the development of electrical generating systems. Within 30 years, his inventions had introduced electric lighting into millions of homes.

Another landmark application of scientific ideas to practical uses was the innovation of the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright. In the 1890s they became fascinated with accounts of German glider experiments and began their own investigation into the principles of flight. Combining scientific knowledge and mechanical skills, the Wright brothers built and flew several gliders. Then, on December 17, 1903, they successfully flew the first heavier-than-air, mechanically propelled airplane.

An American invention that was barely noticed in 1947 went on to usher in a new age of information sharing. In that year John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories drew upon highly sophisticated principles of theoretical physics to invent the transistor, a small substitute for the bulky vacuum tube. This and a device invented 10 years later, the integrated circuit, made it possible to package enormous amounts of electronic circuitry in tiny containers. As a result, book-sized computers of today can outperform room-sized computers of the 1960s, and there has been a revolution in the way people live -- in how they work, study, conduct business, and engage in research.

In the second half of the 20th century American scientists became known for more than their practical inventions and applications. Suddenly, they were being recognized for their contributions to "pure" science, the formulation of concepts and theories. The changing pattern can be seen in the winners of the Nobel Prizes in physics and chemistry. During the first half-century of Nobel Prizes -- from 1901 to 1950 -- American winners were in a distinct minority in the science categories. Since 1950, Americans have won approximately half of the Nobel Prizes awarded in the sciences.

THE ATOMIC AGE

One of the most spectacular -- and controversial -- accomplishments of U.S. technology has been the harnessing of nuclear energy. The concepts that led to the splitting of the atom were developed by the scientists of many countries, but the conversion of these ideas into the reality of nuclear fission was the achievement of U.S. scientists in the early 1940s.

After German physicists split a uranium nucleus in 1938, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, and Leo Szilard concluded that a nuclear chain reaction was feasible. In a letter to President Franklin Roosevelt, Einstein warned that this breakthrough would permit the construction of "extremely powerful bombs." His warning inspired the Manhattan Project, the U.S. effort to be the first to build an atomic bomb. The project bore fruit when the first such bomb was exploded in New Mexico on July 16, 1945.

The development of the bomb and its use against Japan in August of 1945 initiated the Atomic Age, a time of anxiety over weapons of mass destruction that has lasted through the Cold War and down to the antiproliferation efforts of today. But the Atomic Age has also been characterized by peaceful uses of atomic energy, as in nuclear power and nuclear medicine.

The first U.S. commercial nuclear power plant started operation in Illinois in 1956. At the time, the future for nuclear energy in the United States looked bright. But opponents criticized the safety of power plants and questioned whether safe disposal of nuclear waste could be assured. A 1979 accident at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania turned many Americans against nuclear power. The cost of building a nuclear power plant escalated, and other, more economical sources of power began to look more appealing. During the 1970s and 1980s, plans for several nuclear plants were cancelled, and the future of nuclear power remains in a state of uncertainty in the United States.

Meanwhile, American scientists have been experimenting with other renewable sources of energy, including solar power. Although solar power generation is still not economical in much of the United States, two recent developments might make it more affordable.

In 1994 Subhendu Guha, executive vice president of United Solar Systems in Troy, Michigan, was lecturing on the benefits of solar energy and showing a picture of solar cells arrayed on the roof of a house. An architect in the audience said, "But it's so ugly. Who would want that on their house?" That remark got Guha thinking about how to make the photovoltaics look more like the roof, instead of mounting the solar cells on frames that jut skyward.

Two years later, Guha's innovation came off the assembly line -- solar shingles that can be nailed directly onto the roof. The shingles are made from stainless steel sheeting, coated with nine layers of silicon, a semiconducting film, and protective plastic. Roofers install the shingles just as they do normal ones, but they must drill a hole in the roof for electrical leads from each shingle. On average, one-third of a home's roof covered with solar shingles should provide enough power to meet all electrical needs when the sun is shining. Guha believes that his shingles will be economical in some parts of the United States and that they will be even more promising in Japan, where energy prices are high and the government subsidizes solar energy.

Another solar power invention that came to fruition in 1996 is the Solar Two power plant that began operation in the Mojave Desert in California, generating enough electricity for 10,000 homes. On a 38-hectare site, nearly 2,000 huge mirrors point toward a 90-meter "power tower" that heats molten salt, which flows to a steam generator that turns a turbine. The molten salt stores heat energy more effectively than water, and proponents of Solar Two believe this innovation can make large, commercial plants economically feasible in areas with plenty of sun and high energy costs.

THE SPACE AGE

Running almost in tandem with the Atomic Age has been the Space Age. American Robert H. Goddard was one of the first scientists to experiment with rocket propulsion systems. In his small laboratory in Worcester, Massachusetts, Goddard worked with liquid oxygen and gasoline to propel rockets into the atmosphere. In 1926 he successfully fired the world's first liquid-fuel rocket, which reached a height of 12.5 meters. Over the next 10 years, Goddard's rockets achieved modest altitudes of nearly two kilometers, and interest in rocketry increased in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union.

Expendable rockets provided the means for launching artificial satellites, as well as manned spacecraft. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik I, and the United States followed with Explorer I in 1958. The first manned space flights were made in the spring of 1961, first by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin and then by American astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr.

From those first tentative steps to the 1969 moon landing to today's reusable space shuttle, the American space program has brought forth a breathtaking display of applied science. Communications satellites transmit computer data, telephone calls, and radio and television broadcasts. Weather satellites furnish the data necessary to provide early warnings of severe storms. Space technology has generated thousands of products for everyday use -- everything from lightweight materials used in running shoes to respiratory monitors used in hospitals.

MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE

As in physics and chemistry, Americans have dominated the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine since World War II. The National Institutes of Health, the focal point for biomedical research in the United States, has played a key role in this achievement. Consisting of 24 separate institutes, the NIH occupies 75 buildings on more than 120 hectares in Bethesda, Maryland. Its budget in 1997 was almost $13 thousand million.

The goal of NIH research is knowledge that helps prevent, detect, diagnose, and treat disease and disability -- everything from the rarest genetic disorder to the common cold. At any given time, grants from the NIH support the research of about 35,000 principal investigators, working in every U.S. state and several foreign countries. Among these grantees have been 91 Nobel Prize-winners. Five Nobelists have made their prize-winning discoveries in NIH laboratories.

NIH research has helped make possible numerous medical achievements. For example, mortality from heart disease, the number-one killer in the United States, dropped 41 percent between 1971 and 1991. The death rate for strokes decreased by 59 percent during the same period. Between 1991 and 1995, the cancer death rate fell by nearly 3 percent, the first sustained decline since national record-keeping began in the 1930s. And today more than 70 percent of children who get cancer are cured.

With the help of the NIH, molecular genetics and genomics research have revolutionized biomedical science. In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers performed the first trial of gene therapy in humans and are now able to locate, identify, and describe the function of many genes in the human genome. Scientists predict that this new knowledge will lead to genetic tests for susceptibility to diseases such as colon, breast, and other cancers and to the eventual development of preventive drug treatments for persons in families known to be at risk.

Perhaps the most exciting scientific development under way in the United States is the NIH's human genome project. This is an attempt to construct a genetic map of humans by analyzing the chemical composition of each of the 50,000 to 100,000 genes making up the human body. The project is expected to take 15 years to complete, at a cost of at least $3 thousand million.

Research conducted by universities, hospitals, and corporations also contributes to improvement in diagnosis and treatment of disease. NIH funded the basic research on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), for example, but many of the drugs used to treat the disease have emerged from the laboratories of the American pharmaceutical industry; those drugs are being tested in research centers across the country.

One type of drug that has shown promise in treating the AIDS virus is the protease inhibitor. After several years of laboratory testing, protease inhibitors were first given to patients in the United States in 1994. One of the first tests (on a group of 20 volunteers) showed that not only did the drug make the amount of virus in the patients' blood almost disappear, but that their immune systems rebounded faster than anyone had thought possible.

Doctors have combined protease inhibitors with other drugs in "combination therapy." While the results are encouraging, combination therapy is not a cure, and, so far, it works only in the blood; it does not reach into the other parts of the body -- the brain, lymph nodes, spinal fluid, and male testes -- where the virus hides. Scientists continue to experiment with combination therapy and other ways to treat the disease, while they search for the ultimate solution -- a vaccine against it.

EMPHASIS ON PREVENTION

While the American medical community has been making strides in the diagnosis and treatment of disease, the American public also has become more aware of the relationship between disease and personal behavior. Since the U.S. surgeon general first warned Americans about the dangers of smoking in 1964, the percentage of Americans who smoke has declined from almost 50 percent to approximately 25 percent. Smoking is no longer permitted in most public buildings or on trains, buses, and airplanes traveling within the United States, and most American restaurants are divided into areas where smoking is permitted and those where it is not. Studies have linked a significant drop in the rate of lung cancer to a nationwide decline in cigarette smoking.

The federal government also encourages Americans to exercise regularly and to eat healthful diets, including large quantities of fruits and vegetables. More than 40 percent of Americans today exercise or play a sport as part of their regular routine. The per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables has increased by about 20 percent since 1970.

Donna E. Shalala, secretary of health and human services in the Clinton administration, frequently speaks out in support of scientific research and preventive medicine. Addressing a conference of medical and public health professionals in 1996 she said, "We must continue to unlock the incremental mysteries in basic science that culminate in blockbuster discoveries over time. But, we must cast our net wider than that. It must encompass behavioral research, occupational research, health services and outcomes research, and environmental research -- all of which hold the potential to prevent disease -- and help Americans live healthier lives."

Chapter 7 Inquiry and innovation in science and medicine

enlightenment [In’laItenment] n.

1. просвещение; просвещенность

to work for the enlightenment of mankind – содействовать просвещению человечества

2. (Enlightenment) философия просветителей (XVIII века)

the age of Enlightenment – эпоха просвещения

circa [‘sE:kq] prep. книжн. примерно, около (особ. о датах)

reject [‘rIGekt] v.1) отвергать, отклонять

to reject an offer - отклонить предложение, отказаться от предложения

superstition [,su:pq’stISn] n.

1. суеверие

it is a theatrical superstition that a bad dress rehersal means a good first night – в театре бытует суеверное представление, что неудачная генеральная репетиция предсказывает удачную победу

2. иррациональный предрассудок, безотчетное предубеждение

to overcome one’s superstitions – преодолеть свои предрассудки

unbias(s)ed [An’baIqst] a. непредубежденный, беспристрастный

unbias(s)ed observer - беспристрастный наблюдатель

inquiry [In’kwaIqrI] n.

1. расспрашивание; вопрос; запрос

reasonable (idle) inquiry - разумный (праздный) вопрос

2. исследование, (научное) изыскание

chemical inquires - химические исследования /анализы/; - научный метод

working [wq:kIN] n.

the workings of the mind – работа ума

the workings of conscience – голос совести

envision [In’vIZqn] v. книжн. представлять себе, предвидеть

emergence [I’mE:Gqns] n. выход, появление; возникновение

emergence of seedlings – прорастание /появление/ всходов

emergence of many new nations – возникновение многих новых государств

creative [kri’eitIv] a. творческий, созидательный

creative abilities – творческие способности; creative power – творческая /созидательная/ сила

creative frustration – творческое бессилие

reflect [rI’flekt] v. отражать

a mirror reflects light – зеркало отражает свет

the events reflect back much light upon the previous history of Germany – эти события проливают свет на прошлое Германии

secure [sI’kjVq] v. охранять; гарантировать (что-л.)

to secure the liberty of smb. – гарантировать кому-либо свободу

to secure a retreat - обеспечить (себе) отступление

respective [rI’spektIv] a. соответственный

in their respective places – каждый на своем месте

Britain and France were represented by their respective ambassadors – Англия и Франция были представлены своими послами

clause [klO:z] n. статья, пункт, условие; оговорка, клаузула (договора, контракты, завещания)

compromissary clause – юр. арбитражная оговорка; price clause – ком. пункт (контракта) о цене

political and territorial clauses – политические и территориальные статьи (договора и т.п.)

copyright [‘kPpiraIt] n. авторское право

copyright reserved – авторское право сохранено (перепечатка воспрещается)

ensure [In’SVq] v. обеспечивать; гарантировать

to ensure independence – обеспечить независимость

to ensure an income – гарантировать доход

A GOOD CLIMATE FOR SCIENCE

preconception [,pri:kqn’sepS(q)n] n.

1. заранее составленное мнение; предвзятое мнение, предубеждение

2. предрассудок

to free oneself from all preconceptions – избавиться от всяких предрассудков

Founding Fathers

1. амер. ист. «отцы-основатели»; члены конвента, принявшего в 1787 г. Конституцию США

2. (founding fathers) творцы, создатели; отцы (какой-л. науки и т.п.)

Pasteur was one of the Founding Fathers of modern medicine - Пастер был одним из отцов современной медицины.

repute [rI’pju:t] n. 1) репутация to be in good [in bad] repute -

3. известность, добрая слава

writers of repute – известные писатели, писатели с именем; a firm of repute – солидная фирма,

a wine of repute – вино известной марки

suspect [sq’spekt] v. подозревать; думать, полагать

he showed qualities that no one would have suspected him to possess – он обнаружил качества, которых в нем никто и не подозревал;

I suspect that there is an error here – я подозреваю /думаю/, что тут ошибка

lightning [‘laItnIN] n. молния

summer /heat/ lightning- зарница; sheet lightning – сплошная молния;

ball lightning, globular lightning – шаровая молния

convenience [kqn’vi:nIqns] n. удобство

for convenience, for convenience’s sake - для удобства; at your convenience – когда /как/ вам будет удобно

please reply at your earliest convenience – преим. офиц. просим ответить по возможности скорее /как можно скорее/

bifocal [bai’fqVk(q)l] a. двухфокусный, бифокальный

stove [stqVv] n. печь, печка

an electric stove – электрическая плита

fit [fIt] v. приспосабливать; прилаживать, подгонять

to fit a plank in a floor – подогнать половицу

to fit a handle to a broom – приделать ручку к метле

to fit a workshop for a certain purpose – переоборудовать мастерскую для определенной цели

adjacent [q’Geis(q)nt] a. прилежащий, примыкающий, смежный, соседний

adjacent villages – близлежащие /окрестные/ деревни

forge [fO:G] v.

1. (часто forge ahead) медленно или с трудом продвигаться вперед

he is forging ahead of all his rivals on – постепенно опережает всех своих соперников

business is beginning to forge ahead again – дело снова начинает потихоньку двигаться вперед

hygiene [‘haIGi:n] n. гигиена

specimen [‘spesImqn] n. образец, образчик; экземпляр

specimen of handwriting – образец почерка

to take a specimen of smb’s blood – взять у кого-л. кровь на анализ

excavate [‘ekskq,veIt] v. копать, рыть; археол. раскапывать, производить раскопки, делать раскоп

they have been excavating in that country for three years - они ведут раскопки в этой стране уже три года

mastodon(t) [‘mxstq,dPn] n. мастодонт

dissenting [dI’sentIN] a.

1. отколовшийся; неортодоксальный; раскольнический

dissenting minister – священник-диссидент

2. диссидентский, инакомыслящий

dissenting counter-culture – неофициальная, диссидентская культура

self-sustaining [,selfsq’steInIN] a. = self-supporting; самоподдерживающийся (о реакции, процессе и т.п.)

state-of –the-art [‘steItPvDIRt] a. книжн. достигнутый, реальный, внедренный (в противоп. планируемому, экспериментальному)

state-of-the-art commercial computers – компьютеры, производимые в промышленном масштабе.

AMERICAN KNOW-HOW

forefront [‘fO:frAnt] n. передний край, центр деятельности

in the forefront of the battle – на передовой линии

lag [lxg] v. отставать (тж. lag behind); запаздывать

they worked badly and lagged behind – они плохо работали и плелись в хвосте

excel [Ik’sel] v. превосходить

to excel in shooting – превосходно /отлично/ стрелять

applied science /art/ - прикладная наука /-ое искусство/

spring-well [‘sprINwel] n. исток,; ключ, родник, источник

ingenuity [,InGI’nju:Iti] n. изобретательность

it requires much ingenuity – это требует большой изобретательности /много выдумки/

gin [GIn] n. джин (хлопкоочистительная машина)

incandescent [,Inkxn’des(q)nt] a. спец. в состоянии белого накала, раскаленный; светящийся от нагрева

incandescent filament – нить накала

incandescent lamp – лампа накаливания

landmark [‘lxndmRk] a. амер. имеющий заметное значение; играющий заметную роль

glider [‘glaidq] n. ав. Планер

usher [‘ASq] v. вводить, провожать, сопровождать

the butler ushered him into the drawing-room – лакей ввел его в гостинную

sophisticated [sq’fIstIkeItId] a.

1. сложный, усложненный

sophisticated apparatus – сложная аппаратура

2. современный, стоящий на уровне современности

sophisticated weapons – новейшие виды сложного оружия

substitute [‘sAbstI,tju:t] n.

1. замена temporary [efficient, unreliable] substitute – временная /эффективная, ненадежная/ замена

2. заменитель; суррогат cheap substitute – дешёвый заменитель; rubber substitute – заменитель каучука

bulky [‘bAlkI] a. большой; объемистый; громоздкий; неуклюжий, нескладный

tube [tju:b] n. туба, трубка; электронная лампа; электронно-лучевая трубка (тж. electron tube)

high-vacuum tube – вакуумная лампа

integrated circuit [‘IntI,greItId ‘sE:kIt] интегральная схема

circuitry [‘sE:kItrI] n. амер. эл.схема

tiny [‘taInI] a. очень маленький, крошечный

tiny fact – незначительный факт, фактик

outperform [,aVtpq’fO:m] v. превосходить, превзойти

application [,xplI’keIS(q)n] n. применение, приложение; использование

application of atomic energy for peaceful purposes – применение атомной энергии в мирных целях

to be recognized – получить /заслужить/ признание

distinct [dI’stINkt] a. ясный, явственный; отчетливый; членораздельный

distinct order – ясный /точный/ приказ

THE ATOMIC AGE

spectacular [spek'txkjVlq] n. эффективное зрелище (о параде, празднестве и т.п.)

bridal spectacular — пышная свадьба

accomplishment [q'kAmplISInqnt] n

1) выполнение, завершение accomplishment of desires — исполнение желаний

2) достижение accomplishments of scientists — открытия ученных; достижения науки

harness ['hQ:nIs] v. запрягать; обуздывать, покорять, укрощать (реку, водопад и т.п.)

to harness a waterfall – использовать водопад как источник электроэнергии

to harness natural resources – осваивать природные ресурсы

splitting ['splItIN] n. расщепление, раскалывание

splitting of the atom — расщепление атома

feasible ['fi:zqb(q)l] a.

1) осуществимый, выполнимый

feasible plan — выполнимый план

feasible for cultivation — пригодный для обработки (о почве)

bomb [bPm] n. бомба

warning [‘wO:nIN] n. предупреждение; предостережение

it must be a warning to you – пусть это послужит вам предостережением

inspire [In'spaIq] v. внушить; вдохновлять, воодушевлять; стимулировать

the book was inspired by his travels in the Far East — стимулом для написания книги послужила его поездка по Дальнему Востоку

anxiety [xN'zaIqtI] n тревога, беспокойство, боязнь; страх

slight [vague, acute] anxiety — легкое /смутное, сильное/ беспокойство

proliferation [prq"lIfq'reIS(q)n] n. количественный рост; распространение

proliferation of nuclear weapons — распространение ядерного оружия

nuclear non-proliferation treaty – договор о нераспространение ядерного оружия

disposal [dIs'pqVz(q)l] n (of) удаление (чего-л.); избавление (от чего-л.)

waste disposal — размещение /захоронение/ отходов

waste [weIst] n.

1) растрачивание, ненужная или излишняя трата; расточительство

waste of time — напрасная трата времени

2) отходы (тж. waste products); обрезки, обрывки (бумаги и т.п.) выжимки

assure [q'SVq] v. (обыкн. of) уверять, заверять; обеспечивать, гарантировать

to assure good work — гарантировать хорошую работу

they are assured against any unpleasant consequences — они гарантированы от неприятных последствий

appealing [q'pi:lIN] a. привлекательный, обаятельный

cancel ['kxns(q)l] v. вычеркивать, вымарывать, зачеркивать (написанное); аннулировать, отменять

to cancel a treaty – аннулировать договор

renewable [rI'nju:qb(q)l] n. спец. возобновляемый источник энергии

affordable [q'fO:dqb(q)l] a. возможный; допустимый; по средствам

array [q'reI] n. строить (войска)

soldiers were arrayed on the hill – солдаты выстроились на холме

jut I [dZAt] v. выдаваться, выступать (часто jut out, jut forth)

skyward ['skaIwqd] a. устремленный, направленный в небо

solar cell I['sPlq sel] n. физ.элемент солнечной батареи

frame [freIm] n каркас, остов, костяк; скелет сооружения и т.п.

the frame of a building — каркас здания

the frame of a car — остов машины

shingle ['SINg(q)l] n. стр. кровельная дранка; гонт; тонкая доска

nail [neIl] v. забивать гвозди; прибивать (гвоздями); приколачивать

to nail a name-plate to a door – прибить к двери дощечку с фамилией

stainless steel – нержавеющая сталь

sheeting ['Si:tIN] n. защитная обшивка из металла и дерева; стр. опалубка

layer ['leIq] n. слой,; пласт; ряд

a layer of clay – слой глины

film [fIlm] n пленка; тонкий слой (чего-л.)

film of dust — тонкий слой пыли

roofer ['ru:fq] n. кровельщик

to drill a hole – просверлить отверстие

lead [li:d] n. эл. подводящий провод

promising ['prPmIsIN] a. многообещающий, подающий надежды; перспективный

promising pupil – многообещающий ученик; ученик, подающий надежды

fruition [fru:'IS(q)n] n

1. пользование благами; наслаждение (чем-л. достигнутым)

2. осуществление; достижение желанной цели

hopes brought to fruition — осуществленные надежды

to come to fruition — осуществиться, сбыться; дать результаты

proponent [prq'pqVnqnt] n сторонник, защитник; поборник (политики, определенных мер и т.п.)

THE SPACE AGE

rocket propultion – ракетное движение

gasoline ['gxsqli:n] = gasolene амер. Бензин

propel [prq'pel] v приводить в движение; продвигать вперед; толкать

propelled by steam — приводимый в движение паром

to fire a rocket – запустить ракету

liquid /solid/ fuel – жидкое /твердое/ топливо

expendable [Ik'spendqb(q)l] a невозвратимый, невосстановимый; спец. одноразового применения;

неспасаемый (о ракете и т.п.)

tentative ['tentqtIv] n.

tentative definition – рабочее определение

tentative plan – ориентировочный план

furnish ['fE:nIS] v. снабжать, предоставлять; доставлять

to furnish smb. with information – предоставлять кому-л. информацию

MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE

prevent [prI'vent] v. предотвращать, предупреждать; предохранять

to prevent the spread of disease — предупредить распространение болезни

detect [dI'tekt] v. открывать, находить, обнаруживать

to detect the murderer — найти убийцу

diagnose ['daIqgnqVz] v мед. ставить диагноз, диагностировать

to diagnose the case — поставить диагноз

treat [tri:t] v. лечить

which doctor is treating you (for your illness)? - какой врач лечит вас (от этой болезни)?

disability ["dIsq'bIlItI] n. неспособность, бессилие; нетрудоспособность, инвалидность

temporary [partial, total] disability — временная [частичная, полная] потеря трудоспособности

grantee [grQ:n'ti:] n. юр.

1. лицо, которому что-л. передаётся, отдаётся в дар или разрешается; цессионарий

2. лицо или учреждение, получающее субсидию или дотацию

mortality [mO:'txlItI] n. смертность

infant mortality — детская смертность

death-rate ['deTreIt] n. смертность; показатель смертности

мед. припадок, приступ; удар; паралич (тж. paralytic stroke)

he has had a stroke – у него был удар; его разбил паралич

stroke [strqVk] n. heat stroke – тепловой удар

sustained [sq'stenId] a. длительный; непрерывный

sustained effort — длительное усилие

sustained expansion — эк. устойчивый рост

gene [dZi:n] n. Ген

genom(e) ['dZi:nqVm] n. биол. геном, совокупность генов

promise ['prPmIs] n. перспектива, надежда

to give /to show/ promise — подавать надежды

protease ['prqVtIeIz] n. биохим. Протеаз

inhibitor [In'hIbItq] n. хим. замедлитель (реакции); ингибитор, тормозящий агент

rebound [rI'baVnd] n. воспрянуть, оживится; поправиться (о здоровье, настроении)

his spirits rebounded – он воспрянул духом

node [nqVd] n. книжн. узел, узловая точка; пункт, центр переплетения или пересечения (интересов и т.п.)

spinal ['spaInl] a. анат., мед. спинной, позвоночный, спинальный

spinal column — позвоночник, позвоночный столб; спинной хребет

male- ['mxlI-] в сложных словах с лат. корнями имеет значение злой, дурной, враждебный

malediction — проклятие

malevolent — зловредный, злобный

EMPHASIS ON PREVENTION

aware [q'weq] a. predic. (о)сознающий (что-л.), знающий (что-л.); осведомленный (о чем-л.)

we became aware (of) — нам стало известно (что)

to be aware of danger — сознавать опасность, отдавать себе отчет в грозящей опасности

surgeon general ['sE:dZ(q)n dZen(q)rql] n. (pl. surgeons general) амер.

1. воен. начальник медицинского управления

2. руководитель здравоохранения (в федеральном правительстве или в отдельном штате)

warn [wO:n] v. (against, of) предупреждать

he was warned of /against/ the danger — его предупредили об опасности

link [lINk] v. соединять, связывать, сцеплять; компоновать (тж. link together, link to)

these events were all subtly linked together — эти события были каким-то неуловимым образом связаны между собой

to incriminate cigarettes as one cause of lung cancer – считать курение одной из причин заболевания раком легких

nationwide ['neIS(q)nwaId] a. общенародный, всенародный; общенациональный

nationwide campaign — кампания в масштабе всей страны

nationwide defence — воен. оборона всей страны

encourage [In'kArIdZ] v. поощрять, поддерживать

I am encouraged to do the same — мне рекомендуют поступить так же

exercise ['eksqsaIz] v. упражняться, тренироваться (тж. refl.)

we exercise every day — мы тренируемся каждый день

to exercise oneself in fencing — упражняться в фехтовании

healthful ['helTf(q)l] a.

1) здоровый

healthful country — здоровая местность

healthful mind — здоровый дух

2) целебный

healthful water [air] — целебная вода /-ый воздух/

routine [ru:'ti:n] n. заведенный порядок; определенный режим; установившаяся практика

the day's routine — распорядок дня

the routine of business — установившаяся деловая практика

consumption [kqn'sAmpS(q)n] n. потребление

per capita consumption — потребление на душу населения

unlock [An'lPk] v. отпирать, открывать (ключом); раскрывать

to unlock one’s heart – открыть душу

increment ['INkrImqnt] n. увеличение, возрастание

block-buster ['blPk"bAstq] n. разг. 1. сл.бомба большого калибра

2) кино, дорогостоящий кинофильм, отличающийся пышностью постановки

cast [kQ:st] v (cast) бросать, кидать, швырять

to cast a net — закинуть сеть

encompass [In'kAmpqs] v. заключать (в себе), касаться

the report encompasses a number of problems — в докладе затрагивается ряд вопросов

outcome ['aVtkAm] n. результат, последствие, исход

the outcome of an election — результат выборов

Chapter Eight

Freedom of Religion

Early in their history, Americans rejected the concept of the established or government-favored religion that had dominated -- and divided -- so many European countries. Separation of church and state was ordained by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which provides in part that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...."

The First Amendment sounds straightforward, but at times it is difficult even for American constitutional scholars to draw a distinct line between government and religion in the United States. Students in public schools may not pray publicly as part of the school day, yet sessions of the U.S. Congress regularly begin with a prayer by a minister. Cities may not display a Christmas créche on public property, but the slogan "In God We Trust" appears on U.S. currency, and money given to religious institutions can be deducted from one's income for tax purposes. Students who attend church-affiliated colleges may receive federal loans like other students, but their younger siblings may not receive federal monies specifically to attend religious elementary or secondary schools.

It may never be possible to resolve these apparent inconsistencies. They derive, in fact, from a tension built into the First Amendment itself, which tells Congress neither to establish nor to interfere with religion. Trying to steer a clear course between those two dictates is one of the most delicate exercises required of American public officials.

INTERPRETING THE FIRST AMENDMENT

One of the first permanent settlements in what became the North American colonies was founded by English Puritans, Calvinists who had been outsiders in their homeland, where the Church of England was established. The Puritans settled in Massachusetts, where they grew and prospered. They considered their success to be a sign that God was pleased with them, and they assumed that those who disagreed with their religious ideas should not be tolerated.

When the colony's leaders forced out one of their members, Roger Williams, for disagreeing with the clergy, Williams responded by founding a separate colony, which became the state of Rhode Island, where everyone enjoyed religious freedom. Two other states originated as havens for people being persecuted for their religious beliefs: Maryland as a refuge for Catholics and Pennsylvania for the Society of Friends (Quakers), a Protestant group whose members espouse plain living and pacifism.

Even after the adoption of the Constitution in 1787 and the Bill of Rights (which includes the First Amendment) in 1791, Protestantism continued to enjoy a favored status in some states. Massachusetts, for example, did not cut its last ties between church and state until 1833. (As written, the First Amendment applies only to the federal government, not to the states. The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, forbids states to "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." This clause has been interpreted to mean that the states must protect the rights -- including freedom of religion -- that are guaranteed by the Bill of Rights.)

In the 20th century, the relationship between church and state reached a new stage of conflict -- that between civic duty and individual conscience. The broad outlines of an approach to that conflict took shape in a number of Supreme Court rulings.

Perhaps the most noteworthy of these was West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943). The suit stemmed from the refusal of certain members of the Jehovah's Witness religion to salute the American flag during the school day, as commanded by state law. Because their creed forbade such pledges of loyalty, the Witnesses argued, they were being forced to violate their consciences. Three years earlier, the Supreme Court had upheld a nearly identical law -- a decision that had been roundly criticized. In the 1943 case, the Court in effect overruled itself by invoking a different clause in the First Amendment, the one guaranteeing freedom of speech. Saluting the flag was held to be a form of speech, which the state could not force its citizens to perform.

Since then the Supreme Court has carved out other exceptions to laws on behalf of certain religious groups. There remains, however, a distinction between matters of private conscience and actions that adversely affect other people. Thus, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) were jailed in the 19th century for practicing polygamy (subsequently the Mormon Church withdrew its sanction of polygamy). More recently, parents have been convicted of criminal negligence for refusing to obtain medical help for their ailing children, who went on to die, even though the parents' religious beliefs dictated that they refuse treatment because faith would provide a cure.

PROTESTANTS -- LIBERAL AND CONSERVATIVE

Americans have been swept up in many waves of religious excitement. One that occurred in the 1740s, called the Great Awakening, united several Protestant denominations in an effort to overcome a sense of complacency that had afflicted organized religion. A second Great Awakening swept through New England in the early 19th century.

Not all of New England's clergymen, however, were sympathetic to the call for revival. Some had abandoned the Calvinist idea of predestination, which holds that God has chosen those who will be saved -- the "elect" -- leaving humans no ability to affect their destinies through good works or other means. Some ministers preached that all men had free will and could be saved. Others took even more liberal positions, giving up many traditional Christian beliefs. They were influenced by the idea of progress that had taken hold in the United States generally. Just as science adjusted our understanding of the natural world, they suggested, reason should prompt reassessments of religious doctrine.

Liberal American Protestantism in the 19th century was allied with similar trends in Europe, where scholars were reading and interpreting the Bible in a new way. They questioned the validity of biblical miracles and traditional beliefs about the authorship of biblical books. There was also the challenge of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to contend with. If human beings were descended from other animals, as most scientists came to believe, then the story of Adam and Eve, the biblical first parents, could not be literally true.

What distinguished 19th-century liberal Protestants from their 20th-century counterparts was optimism about the human capacity for improvement. Some of the early ministers believed that the church could accelerate progress by trying to reform society. In the spirit of the gospels, they began to work on behalf of the urban poor. Today's liberal clergymen -- not just Protestants but Catholics and others, too -- may be less convinced that progress is inevitable, but many of them have continued their efforts on behalf of the poor by managing shelters for homeless people, feeding the hungry, running day-care centers for children, and speaking out on social issues. Many are active in the ecumenical movement, which seeks to bring about the reunion of Christians into one church.

While liberal Protestants sought a relaxation of doctrine, conservatives believed that departures from the literal truth of the Bible were unjustified. Their branch of Protestantism is often called "evangelical," after their enthusiasm for the gospels of the New Testament.

Evangelical Christians favor an impassioned, participatory approach to religion, and their services are often highly charged, with group singing and dramatic sermons that evoke spirited responses from the congregation. The South, in particular, became a bastion of this "old-time religion," and the conservative Baptist church is very influential in that region. In recent decades some preachers have taken their ministry to television, preaching as "televangelists" to large audiences.

In 1925 the conflict between conservative faith and modern science crystallized in what is known as the Scopes trial in Tennessee. John Scopes, a high school biology teacher, was indicted for violating a state law that forbade teaching the theory of evolution in public schools. Scopes was convicted after a sensational trial that featured America's finest criminal lawyer of the time, Clarence Darrow, for the defense and the renowned populist and former presidential candidate, William Jennings Bryan, for the prosecution.

Since then the Supreme Court has ruled that laws banning the teaching of evolution violate the First Amendment's prohibition of establishing religion. Subsequently the state of Louisiana tried a different approach: It banned the teaching of evolution unless the biblical doctrine of special creation was taught as an alternative. This, too, the Court invalidated as an establishment of religion.

Despite the Supreme Court's clear rulings, this and similar issues pitting reason versus faith remain alive. Religious conservatives argue that teaching evolution alone elevates human reason above revealed truth and thus is antireligious. And even some thinkers who might otherwise be considered liberals have argued that the media and other American institutions foster a climate that tends to slight, if not ridicule, organized religion. Meanwhile, the trend toward removing religious teaching and practices from public schools has prompted some parents to send their children to religious schools and others to educate their children at home.

CATHOLICS AND RELIGIOUS SCHOOLS

By the time of the Civil War, over one million Irish Catholics had come to the United States. In a majority Protestant country, they and Catholics of other backgrounds were subjected to prejudice. As late as 1960, some Americans opposed Catholic presidential candidate John F. Kennedy on the grounds that, if elected, he would do the Pope's bidding. Kennedy confronted the issue directly, pledging to be an American president, and his election did much to lessen anti-Catholic prejudice in the United States.

Although Catholics were never denied access to public schools or hospitals, beginning in the 19th century they built institutions of their own, which met accepted standards while observing the tenets of Catholic belief and morality. On the other hand, the Catholic Church does not require its members to go to church-run institutions. Many Catholic students attend public schools and secular colleges. But Catholic schools still educate many Catholic young people, as well as a growing number of non-Catholics, whose parents are attracted by the discipline and quality of instruction.

Catholics have long recognized that the separation of church and state protects them, like members of other religions, in the exercise of their faith. But as the costs of maintaining a separate educational system mounted, Catholics began to question one application of that principle. Catholic parents reasoned that the taxes they pay support public schools, but they save the government money by sending their children to private schools, for which they also pay tuition. They sought a way in which they might obtain public funds to defray their educational expenses. Parents who sent their children to other private schools, not necessarily religious, joined in this effort.

The legislatures of many states were sympathetic, but the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional most attempts to aid religious schools. Too much "entanglement" between state and church, the Court held, violated the First Amendment's ban on establishing religion. Attempts to alter the separation of church and state by amending the Constitution have not been successful.

LAND OF MANY FAITHS

Like Catholics, Jews were a small minority in the first years of the American republic. Until the late 19th century, most Jews in America were of German origin. Many of them belonged to the Reform movement, a liberal branch of Judaism which had made many adjustments to modern life. Anti-Semitism, or anti-Jewish prejudice, was not a big problem before the Civil War. But when Jews began coming to America in great numbers, anti-Semitism appeared. Jews from Russia and Poland, who as Orthodox Jews strictly observed the traditions and dietary laws of Judaism, clustered in city neighborhoods when they first arrived in the United States.

Usually, Jewish children attended public schools and took religious instruction in special Hebrew schools. The children of Jewish immigrants moved rapidly into the professions and into American universities, where many became intellectual leaders. Many remained religiously observant, while others continued to think of themselves as ethnically Jewish, but adopted a secular, nonreligious outlook.

To combat prejudice and discrimination, Jews formed the B'nai Brith Anti-Defamation League, which has played a major role in educating Americans about the injustice of prejudice and making them aware of the rights, not only of Jews, but of all minorities.

By the 1950s a three-faith model had taken root: Americans were described as coming in three basic varieties -- Protestant, Catholic, and Jew. The order reflects the numerical strength of each group: In the 1990 census, Protestants of all denominations numbered 140 million; Catholics, 62 million; and Jews, 5 million.

Today the three-faith formula is obsolete. The Islamic faith also has 5 million U.S. adherents, many of whom are African-American converts. It is estimated that the number of mosques in the United States -- today, about 1,200 -- has doubled in the last 15 years. Buddhism and Hinduism are growing with the arrival of immigrants from countries where these are the majority religions. In some cases, inner-city Christian churches whose congregations have moved to the suburbs have sold their buildings to Buddhists, who have refitted them to suit their practices.

PRINCIPLES OF TOLERANCE

America has been a fertile ground for new religions. The Mormon and Christian Science Churches are perhaps the best-known of the faiths that have sprung up on American soil. Because of its tradition of noninterference in religious matters, the United States has also provided a comfortable home for many small sects from overseas. The Amish, for example, descendants of German immigrants who reside mostly in Pennsylvania and neighboring states, have lived simple lives, wearing plain clothes and shunning modern technology, for generations.

Some small groups are considered to be religious cults because they profess extremist beliefs and tend to glorify a founding figure. As long as cults and their members abide by the law, they are generally left alone. Religious prejudice is rare in America, and interfaith meetings and cooperation are commonplace.

The most controversial aspect of religion in the United States today is probably its role in politics. In recent decades some Americans have come to believe that separation of church and state has been interpreted in ways hostile to religion. Religious conservatives and fundamentalists have joined forces to become a powerful political movement known as the Christian right. Among their goals is to overturn, by law or constitutional amendment, Supreme Court decisions allowing abortion and banning prayer in public schools. Ralph Reed, former executive director of the Christian Coalition, estimates that one-third of delegates to the 1996 Republican Convention were members of his or similar conservative Christian groups, an indication of the increased involvement of religion in politics.

While some groups openly demonstrate their religious convictions, for most Americans religion is a personal matter not usually discussed in everyday conversation. The vast majority practice their faith quietly in whatever manner they choose -- as members of one of the traditional religious denominations, as participants in nondenominational congregations, or as individuals who join no organized group. However Americans choose to exercise their faith, they are a spiritual people. Nine out of ten Americans express some religious preference, and approximately 70 percent are members of religious congregations.

Chapter Eight Freedom of Religion

reject ['ri:dZekt]v отвергать, отклонять

to reject a bill in Parliament—отклонить законопроект в парламенте

favour ['feIvq] благоприятствовать; содействовать, помогать, поддерживать; одобрять

the darkness favoured his escape — темнота способствовала его побегу

ordain [O:'deIn] v юр. предписывать; отдавать распоряжение; постановлять

straightforward["streIt'fO:wqd] прямой, непосредственный, простой

straightforward language — простой язык

minister ['ministe] n священник (неангликанский)

sibling ['siblin] n родной брат или родная сестра

apparen [q'pxrqnt] а явный, очевидный, несомненный; наглядный

apparent error [deceit, contradiction] — явная ошибка [-ый обман, -ое противоречие]

inconsistency["Inkqn'sIst(q)nsI] несовместимость

steer [stIq] v следовать (по какому-л. пути); держаться (какого-л. курса)

to steer a steady course — неуклонно следовать по избранному пути

exercise ['eksqsaIz] n упражнение, тренировка, упражнение (грамматическое и т. п.); задача

an exercise in geometry—задача по геометрии

outsider [aVt'saIdq] n посторонний (человек), не принадлежащий к данному учреждению, кругу

he has lived here for 20 years but is still regarded as an outsider — он живет здесь 20 лет, но есчитают чужим

'tolareit v терпеть, выносить

to tolerate smb. 's presence [smb. 's impudence] — терпеть чье-л. присутствие [чью-л наглость]

force out ['fo:s'aut] phr. v вытеснять

haven ['heiv(a)n] n гавань; убежище, приют; пристанище

haven of refuge — спасительная гавань; тихая пристань

haven for smugglers—рай для контрабандистов

persecute ['p3:sikju:t] v преследовать, подвергать гонениям

the church persecutes opinion — церковь преследует свободу мысли

refuge ['refju:G]n убежище, пристанище (тж. place или house of refuge)

night refuge — пристанище на ночь; to seek refuge — искать убежища

Quaker ['kweika] n квакер

espouse [I'spaVz] v книжн. поддерживать (идею и т. п)

to espouse the cause of рeace — отстаивать дело мира, бороться за мир

plain [plein] а простой, незамысловатый, обыкновенный

plain dress [furniture]—простое платье [-ая мебель]

plain food— простая пища

forbid [fq'bxd] v (forbade, forbad; forbidden) запрещать, не давать разрешения

I forbid you to go there — я запрещаю вам идти туда

civic ['sIvIk] а гражданский

civic rights — гражданские права

conscience ['kPnS(q)ns] n совесть

clear/good/conscience—чистая совесть; bad/evil/conscience—нечистая совесть

pangs /pricks, remorse/ of conscience —угрызения совести; freedom /liberty/ of conscience — свобода совести;

outline ['aVtlaIn] n часто pl. контур, обвод, абрис, очертание

the outlines of the skyscrapers — силуэты небоскребов

the outline of Italy suggests a boot — no своим очертаниям Италия напоминает сапог

ruling ['ru:lin)] n. постановление, решение (суда, председателя собрания) noteworthy ['naut,w3:oi] а заслуживающий внимания; достопримечательный

noteworthy for beauty — славящийся красотой; noteworthy for height — примечательный своей высотой

suit [s(j)u:t] n юр. иск; судебное дело; судебный процесс; судопроизводство

criminal [civil] suit — уголовное [гражданское] дело

stem [stem] v (from, out of) происходить, возникать

the present wave of strikes stems from the discontent among the lower paid-workers—нынешняя ваяна забастовок порождена недовольством низкооплачиваемых рабочих

Jehovah [dZI'hqVvq] n библ. Йегова

Jehovah's Witnesses—свидетели Иеговы (секта)

creed [kri:d] n кредо, убеждения; церк. (the Creed) символ веры; вероисповедание

political and artistic creed — политические и художественные пристрастия

церк. (the Creed) символ веры; вероисповедание

pledge [pledg] n знак, символ, залог

pledge of fidelity [friendship] — залог верности [дружбы]

pledge of love — залог любви (ребенок)

loyalty ['lOIqltIz] n. верность, преданность; лояльность; благонадёжность

loyalty purge — амер. чистка государственных учреждении от заподозренных в нелояльном отношении к американскому образу жизни

loyalty test—амер. “проверка лояльности” (государственных служащих)

overrule ['qVvqru:l] отвергать, отклонять предложение; аннулировать; считать недействительным

to overrule a claim [an objection]—отвергать требование [возражение]

to overrule a decision—считать недействительным /отменить/ решёние

invoke [In'vqVk] v l. призывать; взывать; молить; 2. юр. применять (статью, оговорку)

to invoke smb. 's aid — взывать к чьей-л. помощи:

to invoke protection — молить о защите

carve out ['ka:v'aut] phr. v 1. добиваться (для себя); 2. юр. выделять (часть имущества, имение)

to make /to carve out/a career for oneself—сделать карьеру

exception [Ik'sepS(q)n] n. исключение, изъятие

an exception from /to/the rule—исключение из правила

the exception proves the rule — исключение подтверждает правило

adverse ['xdvE:s] враждебный; неблагоприятный; вредный; противоречащий (чьим-л.) интересам

adverse criticism — враждебная /недоброжелательная/ критика

under adverse circumstances — при неблагоприятных обстоятельствах

affect [a'fekt] v (воз)действовать (на что-л.); влиять

to affect public opinion [smb. 's resolution, smb. 's choice] — оказать влияние на общественное мнение [на чье-л. решение, на чей-л. выбор]

Latter-day Saints — “Святые наших дней” (самоназвание мормонов)

jail [dZeIl] v заключать в тюрьму

to commit to prison /to jail/—заключить в тюрьму, арестовать

detention in (a) jail— тюремное заключение

polygamy [pq'lIgqmI] n многобрачие, полигамия

subsequently ['sAbsIkwqntlI] adv впоследствии, затем, потом

sanction ['sxNkS(q)n] n поддержка, согласие, одобрение, разрешение

tacit sanction — молчаливое одобрение

the sanction of conscience — то, что позволяет совесть

the sanction of public opinion—поддержка /одобрение/общественного мнения

withdraw [wID'drO:] v (withdrew; withdrawn) снимать, отменять; аннулировать

to withdraw a motion — снять предложение to withdraw one's name from the list of nominees — снять свою кандидатуру

convict ['kPnvIkt] юр. признать виновным, вынести приговор; осудить

to convict of /редк. for/'murder—признать виновным в убийстве

negligence ['neglIdZ(q)ns] n

1. небрежность, нерадивость, невнимание

to let friendship die away by negligence — убить дружбу недостатком внимания

2. неосторожность, неосмотрительность; недосмотр; халатность criminal/culpable/negligence — юр. преступная халатность /неосторожность или небрежность/

ail [eIl] v хворать, чувствовать недомогание; заболевать

he is ailing — он хворает /болеет/; he ailed sadly during the winter — за эту зиму он сильно сдал

sweep up ['swi:p'Apl] phr. v 1. подмести, вымести; 2. устремиться, ринуться вверх

the bird swept up—птица улетела

excitement [ik'saitmant] n возбуждение, волнение

flushed with excitement—раскрасневшийся от волнения

awakening [q'weIkqn] n 1. пробуждение; 2. утрата иллюзий, осознание (происходящего)

rude awakening — глубокое разочарование

denomination [dI"nPmI'neIS(q)n] n 1. называние; обозначение; 2. вероисповедание; конфессия

the meeting was attended by all sects and denominations — на собрании были представители всех сект и вероисповедании

complacency [kqm'pleIs(q)nsI] n самодовольство; удовлетворённость; источник радости, удовлетворения и т. п.

the old lady's complacency — спокойствие /довольный вид/ старушки

afflict [q'flIkt]] v огорчать, беспокоить; сокрушать; приводить в отчаяние; поражать (о болезни)

to afflict smb. with (constant) complaints — донимать кого-л. (постоянными) жалобами

to be afflicted with lameness — хромать

to be afflicted with a sense of inferiority— страдать комплексом неполноценности

predestination ["pri:destI'neIS(q)n] n предопределение; судьба; удел

abandon[q'bxndqn] v отказываться; оставлять

to abandon the attempt—отказаться от попытки, прекратить попытки

abandon hope all ye who enter here (Dante) — оставь надежду всяк сюда входящий

hold [held] v (held; held) держать; полагать, считать, находить

to hold a pen [a brush, a spade] — держать перо [кисть, лопату]

I hold it good — я считаю, что это хорошо;

we hold him (to be) a fool — мы считаем его дураком

choose [tSu:z] v (chose; chosen) выбирать; отбирать, подбирать

to choose an apple [a friend, a wife]—выбрать (себе) яблоко [друга, жену]

to choose between death and dishonour — сделать выбор между смертью и бесчестьем

elect [I'lekt] nl. (the elect) избранные, избранники; рел. божьи избранники

the elect of the land — цвет /лучшие люди/ страны

affect ['xfekt]] v 1. (воздействовать (на что-л.); влиять

to affect public opinion [smb.'s resolution, smb. 's choice] — оказать влияние на общественное мнение [на чье-л. решение, на чеи-л. выбор]

destiny ['destini] n судьба; доля, участь

to settle smb. 's destiny — решить чью-л, участь.

every man has but one destiny —у каждого человека (только) своя судьба

means [mi:nz] n употр. с гл. в ед. и мн. ч. средство, способ

means of communication—средства связи /сообщения/

minister ['mInIstq] n священник (неангликанский)

preach [pri:tS] v проповедовать; читать проповедь

to preach Christ— проповедовать христианство

to preach a long sermon—прочитать длинную проповедь

give up ['gIv'Ap] phr v отказаться (от работы, предложения, участия в соревновании и т. п.)

to give up the thought /the idea/— отказаться от мысли

influence ['InflVqns] v оказывать влияние, воздействие, влиять

influenced by smth. — под влиянием чего-л.

adjust [q'dZAst] v приводить в порядок; улаживать; приспособлять; пригонять

to adjust differences—урегулировать/устранить/разногласия

you should adjust your expenditure to your income — деньги следует тратить в соответствии с доходами; по одежке протягивай ножки

reason ['ri:z(a)n]n причина; основание; разум, интеллект

the reason of eclipses — причина затмений;

only man has reason — только человек- существо разумное

prompt [prompt] v побуждать; толкать; подсказывать; напоминать; внушать (мысль)

what prompted you to do it? — что побудило вас сделать это?

he was prompted by mercy — он действовал из жалости

a feeling prompted by hatred — чувство, внушенное /порожденное/ ненавистью

assessment [q'sesmqnt] n оценка, мнение, суждение

assessment of forces — оценка сил

scholar ['skPlq] n учёный, особ. гуманитарий

distinguished [well-known] scholar—выдающийся [знаменитый]учёный

validity [vq'lIdItI] n юр. действительность; юридическая сила, юридическое действие

to dispute the validity of a document — оспаривать действительность документа

miracle ['mIrqk(q)l] n чудо

to work miracles — творить чудеса

it sounds like a miracle — в это трудно поверить; это похоже на чудо

authorship ['O:TqSIp] n авторство

book of doubtful authorship—книга, автор которой не установлен

biblic, biblical ['biblik,] а библейский

contend [kqn'tend] v (for, against, with) бороться, сражаться

to contend for truth — сражаться за правду

to contend with difficulties — бороться с трудностями

descend [dl'send] v спускаться, сходить; происходить

to descend from the mountains — спуститься с гор

he is descended /редк. he descends/from an ancient family — он происходит из старинного рода

literally ['lIt(q)rqlI] adv буквально, дословно

to translate literally — переводить буквально

to interpret a remark [an order] literally — понимать /толковать/замечание [приказ] в буквальном смысле

distinguish [dIs'tINgwIS] v отличать, различать

to distinguish one thing from another— отличать одну вещь от другой

counterpart ['kaVntqpQ:t] n. коллега, должностное лицо, занимающее аналогичный пост (в другом

учреждении, в другой стране и т. п.)

capacity [kq'pxsItI] n (for, of) способность (к чему-л., на что-л.)

capacity to pay — платежеспособность

a capacity for work — работоспособность

Gospel ['gPsp(q)l] n евангелие; (the gospel) отрывок из евангелия, зачитываемый во время богослужения

St. Mark's Gospel, the Gospel according to St. Mark—евангелие от Марка

in the spirit of goodwill — в духе доброй воли

urban ['E:bqn] и редк. городской житель, горожанин

convinced [kqn'vIns] а убеждённый; уверенный

a convinced supporter of his political party —убежденный сторонник своей партии

he was convinced that they would come — он был уверен, что они придут

inevitable [i'nevitab(a)l] а неизбежный, неминуемый

manage ['mxnIdZ] v руководить, управлять; заведовать, стоять во главе

to manage a factory—руководить/управлять/фабрикой

to manage a household [a business] — вести домашнее хозяйство [дело]

she manages cattle — она ходит за скотиной

shelter ['Seltq] n кров, пристанище, приют, убежище

to abandon hospitable shelter — покинуть гостеприимный кров /приют/

day-care ['deIkeq] а обеспечивающий присмотр/уход/за детьми (в детских учреждениях)

day-care services—детские учреждения

ecumenic, ecumenical ["i:kjV'menIk, -(q)l] а всемирный; церк. вселенский (о соборе); экуменический;

отстаивающий единство христианских церквей

Ecumenic(al) movement — экуменическое движение

[unjustified [An'dZAstIfaId] а неоправданный; неправомерный

evangelical ["i:vxn'dZelIk(q)l] n приверженец одной из евангелических церквей; протестант

favour ['feIvq] v мирволить, оказывать предпочтение; проявлять пристрастие

impassioned [Im'pxS(q)n] а охваченный страстью, страстный, пылкий

participatory theatre [pQ:'tIsIpqt(q)rI'TIqtq] театр или представление с участием зрителей

sermon ['sE:mqn] n проповедь

spirited ['spIrIt] а живой, энергичный; горячий, пылкий

congregation ["kPNgrI'geIS(q)n] n церк. прихожане, паства; конгрегация, религиозное братство

audience ['O:dIqns] n публика, зрители, аудитория

indict [In'daIt] ч юр. обвинять в правонарушении

forbid [fq'bid] v (forbade, forbad; forbidden) запрещать, не давать разрешения

feature ['fi:tSq] v фигурировать; быть представленным

prosecution ["prPsI'kju:S(q)n] n. юр. обвинение (как сторона в уголовном процессе)

rule [ru:l] v преим. юр. разрешать (дело); постановлять; устанавливать порядок производства

to rule against smth. — вынести постановление, запрещающее что-л.

the speaker was ruled out of order by the chairman — председатель (собрания) лишил оратора слова subsequently [ ' SAbsikwantll] adv впоследствии, затем, потом

invalidate [In'vxlIdeIt] юр. лишать юридической силы, делать или признавать недействительным

to invalidate a treaty—лишить договор силы

pit [pit] v выставлять кого-л., что-л. против кого-л., чего-л.

to pit one boxer [wrestler] against another — выставить одного боксера [борца] против другого

versus['vE:sqs] prep лат. (сокр. v. или vs.)

1. юр., спорт. против

Dynamo v. Arsenal — “Динамо” — “Арсенал”

2. в отличие от; в сравнении с; или (как альтернатива); в противовес

man-made fibres versus natural fibres — искусственное волокно в сравнении с натуральным

alive [a'laiv] а обыкн. predic живой, существующий, действующий; живой; остающийся в силе

traditions that are still alive — сохранившиеся /все еще живые/ традиции

elevate ['eliveit] v поднимать; повышать

to elevate the voice — повышать голос

reveal [rI'vi:l] v показывать, обнаруживать; открывать; разоблачать

to reveal a secret to smb. — открыть /поверить/ кому-л. секрет /тайну/

foster ['foste] v благоприятствовать, способствовать развитию; поощрять

to foster artistic talent — способствовать развитию художественного таланта

slight [slait] n поверхностный, неглубокий

slight knowledge — поверхностные знания

ridicule ['rIdIkju:l] n осмеяние, насмешка, нелепость, смехотворная вещь, смехотворность

prompt [prompt] v побуждать; толкать; подсказывать, напоминать

CATHOLICS AND RELIGIOUS SCHOOLS

background ['baekgraund] n

1. задний план; фон

2. подготовка, образование; квалификация

he has the right background/or the job — у него хорошая подготовка для этой работы

3. (биографические или анкетные) данные; происхождение; общественный и моральный облик;

связи и окружение (человека)

to look up smb's background— наводить справки о ком-л. / о чьем-л происхождении и связях, моральном облике u т.п.

what is his background? — что он собой представляет?

subject ['sAbdZIkt]v (to) подчинять, покорять; подвергать

to subject smb. to cross-examination [to a test] — подвергнуть кого-л. перекрестному допросу [испытанию]

prejudice['predZqdIs]n

1. пристрастное, предвзятое мнение; предубеждение

2.предрассудок

3. вред, ущерб, причинённый (кому-л.) несправедливым решением суда; несправедливость

bidding ['bidin] n

1. предложение цены (на аукционе); надбавка к цене

2. Приказание; распоряжение to do smb's bidding— исполнять чьи-л. приказания

Pope [pqVp] n папа римский

lessen ['les(q)n] v уменьшать, убавлять

to lessen punishment—смягчить наказание

attract [a'traekt] v притягивать; прельщать, пленять, привлекать

salt attracts moisture — соль впитывает влагу

to attract attention — привлекать внимание

he attracted a large number of followers — он увлек за собой многочисленных последователей

exercise ['eksqsaIz] v упражняться, тренироваться;осуществлять, применять, использовать;

пользоваться; проявлять

to exercise administration—осуществлять управление

to exercise control— а) контролировать, осуществлять контроль; б) управлять, осуществлять управление

to exercise a right — использовать /осуществить/право

maintain [meIn|'teIn, mqn-]v поддерживать, сохранять

to maintain contact — поддерживать связь /контакт/

mount [maVnt] v

1. взбираться, восходить, подниматься (часто mount up)

2. устанавливать; монтировать

3. повышаться, возрастать (о цене, доходе и т. п.; тж. mount up); усиливаться, расти (о гневе, замешательстве и т. п.)

his profits are constantly mounting — его доходы постоянно возрастают /увеличиваются, растут/

seek [si:k] v (sought) (часто for, after) искать, разыскивать; пытаться найти

to seek (for) employment — искать работу

to seek an explanation of smb. 's conduct — искать объяснение чьим-л. поступкам /чьему-л. поведению/

defray [di'frei] v ком. оплачивать

to defray the expenses /the cost/— оплатить расходы, взять на себя расходы

entanglement [In'txNg(q)lmqnt] n запутанность

LAND OF MANY FAITHS

adjustment [q'dZAstmqnt] регулирование; согласование

to make adjustment to village life — приспособиться к сельской жизни

neighbourhood ['neIbqhVd] n соседство, близость; округа; (свой) район, квартал

in the neighbourhood of the station — где-то около станции

a white neighbourhood — амер. район /квартал/, где нельзя жить неграм

observant [qb'zE:v(q)nt] наблюдательный, внимательный; соблюдающий (законы, предписания)

observant child— наблюдательный ребенок

observant eyes — внимательный взгляд

observant of customs — соблюдающий обычаи

secular ['sekjVlq] а светский, мирской, нецерковный

secular architecture — светская архитектура

secular education — светское образование

root [ru:t] n корень

to take /to strike/ root — а) пускать корни, приниматься (о растении); б) укореняться, прививаться; приживаться

denomination [dI"nPmI'neIS(q)n] n вероисповедание; конфессия

the meeting was attended by all sects and denominations — на собрании были представители всех сект и вероисповеданий

adherent [qd'hI(q)rqnt] n приверженец; последователь, сторонник, адепт

convert ['kenv3:t] n pen. Новообращённый; перешедший из одной партии в другую; человек,

изменивший свои взгляды, убеждения

mosque [rnosk] n мечеть

Buddhism ['bVdIz(q)m] n буддизм

Hinduism ['hIndu:Iz(q)m] n индуизм

refit [,ri:'fit]v чинить, ремонтировать; переоборудовать (корабль и т. п.)

suit [s(j)u:t] v

1. удовлетворять требованиям; подходить, устраивать

will that time suit (you)? — это время (вас) устроит?

this suits me best — это меня устраивает больше всего

2.быть полезным, пригодным

cold [coffee] does not suit me — холодный [кофе] мне вреден

3. годиться; соответствовать, подходить

to be suited for/to/smth. —годиться для чего-л.

the position suits with his abilities — должность соответствует его способностям

PRINCIPLES OF TOLERANCE

spring up ['sprIN'Ap] phr. v быстро расти, вырастать

to spring up like mushrooms — расти как грибы

oversea(s) ["qVvq'si:(z)] а заморский, заокеанский; заграничный

oversea(s) trade — внешняя торговля

oversea(s) territories — заморские территории

descendant [di'sendant] n потомок

direct/lineal/descendant—прямой потомок

reside[rI'zaId] v книжн. (in, at) проживать, жить; пребывать, находиться (где-л)

permission to reside—разрешение на жительство .

neighbouring['neIbq] а соседний; смежный, прилегающий

neighbouring countries — соседние /пограничные/государства

shun [SAn]v избегать, держаться в стороне; остерегаться

to shun society [everybody]—-сторониться общества [всех людей]

profess [prq'fes] v открыто признавать, заявлять (во всеуслышание); исповедовать (веру)

to profess too much — обещать слишком много

glorify ['glO:rIfaI] v прославлять

the names which glorified this age — имена, прославившие наш век

abide [q'baId] v (abode, abided; abode, abided, abidden) следовать (чему-л.), выполнять (что-л.);

действовать в соответствии (с чём-л.); придерживаться (чего-л.)

to abide by the terms [agreement, decision, rules]— соблюдать /выполнять/условия [договор, решение, правила]

to leave /to let/ smb., smth. alone — оставлять кого-л., что-л. в покое; не трогать кого-л., что-л.

commonplace ['kPmqnpleIs] n обыкновенное происшествие; обычная вещь

the atmosphere of commonplace — будничная атмосфера today television is a commonplace — телевидение ныне вошло в быт

controversial ["kPntrq'vE:S(q)l] а спорный, дискуссионный

controversial question [point] — спорный вопрос [пункт]

hostile ['hPstaIl] враждебный; неприязненный, недружелюбный; враждебно относящийся (к чему-л.)

hostile act [actions] — враждебный акт [-ые действия]

hostile looks — недружелюбные взгляды

conviction [kqn'vIkS(q)n] n.

1) осуждение, признание подсудимого виновным

2) pl. . убеждения, взгляды religious convictions—религиозные убеждения

to act up to one's convictions — действовать в соответствии со своими убеждениями

spiritual ['spIrItSVql]a.

1. духовный, интеллектуальный, умственный

2. тонкий, одухотворённый, возвышенный