2.A lack or shortage, especially of something essential to health; an insufficiency: a nutritional deficiency.

reimburse [,ri:Im'bE:s] v возмещать, покрывать, оплачивать; возвращать (сумму) to reimburse smb. for damage — компенсировать кому-л. Ущерб

1 .To repay (money spent); refund.

2.To pay back or compensate (another party) for money spent or losses incurred.

subsidize ['sAbsIdaIz] v субсидировать, дотировать

deficiency payment - покрытие дефицита

stir [stE:] v шевелить, размешивать; волновать, возбуждать

a book that stirs the soul — книга, которая волнует (душу) the town was stirred by a deep emotion — город был охвачен глубоким волнением

vigorous ['vIg(q)rqs] а сильный; бодрый; энергичный; решительный (о действиях) vigorous measures [protest]—решительные/энергичные/меры [-ый протест] Synonyms: active, energetic, dynamic, vigorous, lively. These adjectives are compared as they mean engaged in activity. Active, the most neutral, merely means being in a state of action as opposed to being passive or quiescent: an active imagination. Energetic suggests sustained enthusiastic action with unflagging vitality: an energeticfund raiserfor the college. Dynamic connotes energy and forcefulness that is often inspiring to others: A dynamic speaker, the senator often persuades her colleagues to change their votes. Vigorous implies healthy strength and robustness: "a vigorous crusader against apartheid and government press restrictions" (Christian Science Monitor). Lively suggests brisk alertness, animation, and energy: / take a lively interest in politics.

THE LONG VIEW

pest [pest] n сельскохозяйственный вредитель, вредное насекомое, паразит

garden pests—садовые вредители

mosquitoes and similar pests — москиты и другие вредные насекомые

vigilant ['vIGIlqnt] а бдительный

to be vigilant against smth. — быть бдительным в отношении чего-л., неусыпно следить /постоянно

наблюдать/за чём-л.

splicing ['splaIsiN)] n биохим. сплайсинг (вырезание участков РНК)

THE AMERICAN STYLE OF MASS PRODUCTION

automaker ['O:tq(V)meIkq] n амер. автомобилестроитель

to frame a sentence — построить предложение

fascinate ['fxsineIt] v очаровывать, приводить в восхищение, пленять

the idea of going on a sea-voyage fascinated him — мысль о морском путешествии привела его в восторг

2) увлекать, вызывать острый или глубокий интерес

space exploration fascinates mankind— человечество увлечено освоением космоса

a drive for self-affirmation — стремление к самоутверждению

drive for power — борьба за власть

gain [geIn] v получать; приобретать, погубить, разорить

to gain experience (as one grows older) — приобретать опыт /набираться опыта/ (с годами)

1. То come into possession or use of; acquire: gained a small fortune in real estate; gained important information

about the enemy's plans. . ,

2.To attain in competition or struggle; win: gained a decisive victory; gained control of the company.

3.То obtain through effort or merit; achieve: gain recognition; gain a hearing for the proposal.

4.To secure as profit or reward; earn: gain a living; gain extra credits in school.

5.a. To manage to achieve an increase of: a movement that gained strength; gained wisdom with age. b. To

increase by (a specific amount): gained 15 pounds; the market gained 30 points.

6.To come to; reach: gained the top of the mountain..

7.To become fast by (a specified amount of time). Used of a timepiece: My watch gains four minutes a day. overwhelm [,qVvq'welm] v преодолеть; подавить, разбить

the enemy were overwhelmed by superior forces — войска противника были смяты превосходящими силами power ['paVq] v поддерживать; вдохновлять

faith in goodness powers his life — вера в добро освещает всю его жизнь

entrepreneur [,Pntrqprq 'nE:] n фр. предприниматель; владелец предприятия

small entrepreneur — владелец мелкого предприятия

spirit ['spIrIt] п душа; дух; натура, личность, индивидуальность; ум

he is a generous [a mean, a noble, a proud, a timid] spirit — у него /это/ широкая [низкая, благородная,

гордая, робкая] душа

trace [treIs] v выследить; найти следы, признаки

to trace long-lost relations —разыскать родственников, с которыми давно потеряна связь

the police have traced the criminal — полиция выследила преступника Puritan ['pjV(q)rItn] n ист. пуританин

1.A member of a group of English Protestants who in the 16th and 17th centuries advocated strict religious

discipline along with simplification of the ceremonies and creeds of the Church of England.

2.Puritan. One who lives in accordance with Protestant precepts, especially one who regards pleasure or luxury

as sinful.

ruthless ['ru:TlIs] а безжалостный, жестокий

robber ['rPbq] n грабитель, разбойник; вор

baron ['bxrqn] n барон; магнат, туз, вельможа

Wall Street barons — заправилы Уолл-стрита;

Hollywood baron — магнат американской кинопромышленности /Голливуда/;

coal [soap, sausage, oil] barons —угольные [мыльные, колбасные, нефтяные] корояи;

cattle barons — крупные скотоводы

consistent [kqn'sIst(q)nt] a (with) совместимый, сообразный, согласующийся

this is not consistent with what you told me yesterday — это противоречит тому, что вы сказали мне вчера

practices consistent with his beliefs — действия, соответствующие его убеждениям

adopt [a'dPpt] v принимать; усваивать; выбирать

to adopt the attitude of an onlooker — занять позицию /встать в позу/стороннего наблюдателя

to adopt a patronizing tone — принять покровительственный тон

precision [prI'sIZ(q)n] n тех. точность, прецизионность

precision instrument — точный /прецизионный/ прибор

engineering [,enGI'nI(q)rIN] n техника; инженерное искусство; технология

radio engineering — радиотехника

chemical engineering — химическая технология

interchangeable [,Intq'CeInGqb(q)l] а взаимозаменяемый

interchangeable synonyms — взаимозаменяемые синонимы

discrete [dIs'kri:t] а оторванный; отвлечённый, абстрактный

Synonyms: distinct, discrete, separate, several. The central meaning shared by these adjectives is "distinguished

from others in nature or qualities": six distinct colors; a government with three discrete divisions: a problem

consisting of two separate issues; performed the several steps of the process.

set aside ['setq'saId] phr v (for) выделять; предназначать

this was the day set aside for his wedding — на этот день была назначена его свадьба

AN INDUSTRIAL NATION

afterward(s) ['Rftqwqd(z)] j adv впоследствии, потом, позже

buy now, pay afterward(s)!— покупайте в рассрочку /в кредит/!

efficiency [I’fIS(q)nsI] n производительность, продуктивность, прибыльность

the efficiency of labour — производительность труда

to increase efficiency and to diminish cost of output — повысить производительность труда и снизить

себестоимость производства

labor cost заработная плата (как элемент себестоимости); рl. затраты на рабочую силу inspire [in'spaIq] v вдохновлять, воодушевлять; стимулировать

the book was inspired by his travels in the Far East — стимулом для написания книги послужила его поездка

по Дальнему Востоку

afford [q'fO:d] v иметь возможность, быть в состоянии (сделать что-л.); позволить себе (покупку, удовольствие)

/ can't afford the journey — я не могу себе позволить такое путешествие

\ .То have the financial means for; be able to meet the cost of: not able to afford a new car.

2. To be able to spare or give up: can't afford an hour for lunch.

3.То be able to do or bear without disadvantage or risk to oneself: can afford to be tolerant.

4.To make available; provide: a sport affording good exercise; a tree that affords ample shade.

numb [nAm] v вызывать онемение или окоченение

to chafe numbed feet —растирать окоченевшие ноги

inferior [In'fI(q)rIq] а низкий или низший по значению, достоинствам, ценности, сорту

garnets are regarded as inferior to rubies — гранаты считаются менее ценными, чем рубины

A POSTINDUSTRIAL ECONOMY

it was my good fortune to be present — мне посчастливилось быть там

devastation [,devq’steIS(q)n] n опустошение, разорение

the enormous devastation and suffering associated with the war — невероятная разруха и страдания,

которые несёт с собой война

balancing the productive capacity — устранение диспропорций производственных мощностей

seal [si:l] n печать; клеймо

customs seal — печать таможни [см. тж. 2]

to affix /to put/ one's seal to a document — приложить печать к документу, скрепить документ печатью

to meet the challenge — принять вызов

garment ['ga:mqnt] n предмет одежды; р1. одежда

the upper garments — книжн. верхняя одежда

garment industry ['ga:mqnt, IndqstrI] швейная промышленность

draw [drO:] v (drew; drawn)

the accident drew a great crowd — на месте происшествия собралась большая толпа

a pretty girl drew his eye — его внимание привлекла смазливая девчушка

to draw smb. 's attention (to smth.) — обратить чьё-л. внимание (на что-л.)

mixed [mIkst] а смешанный; разнородный

mixed feeling — смешанное /двойственное/ чувство

response [n'spons] n. Ответ; реакция; реагирование; отклик

ready response — живой отклик

his appeal met with a generous response — его обращение встретило /нашло/широкий отклик

resent [rI'zent] v негодовать, возмущаться; обижаться

he resents criticism — он не терпит критики

does he resent my being here? — ему не нравится, что я здесь? accuse [q'kju:z] v обвинять, винить

to accuse smb. of negligence [of unfaithfulness, of cheating at cards] — обвинять кого-л. в халатности [в

неверности, в шулерстве]

to accuse the technicians of carelessness which caused the breakdown — возлагать на техников вину за

аварию

inject [In'Gekt] v

1. вводить, привносить to inject a remark into a conversation — вставить замечание в разговор

2. тех. впрыскивать; вдувать

3. эк. вкладывать (средства и т. п.)

to put /to set/ smth. in motion — привести что-л. в движение

predict [prI'dIkt] v предсказывать; прогнозировать; пророчить

I predict she'll be a success at the party — я тебе точно говорю, она произведёт впечатление /будет иметь

успех/ на вечеринке

Synonyms: predict, call. forecast, foretell, prognosticate. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to tell

about something in advance of its occurrence by means of special knowledge or inference": predict an eclipse;

couldn't call the outcome of the game; forecasting the weather; foretold the collapse of the government;

prognosticating a rebellion. concern [kqn'sE:n]v

1. касаться (в рассказе); описывать

the story concerns a good girl and a wicked fairy — в сказке говорится о хорошей девочке и злой

2. беспокоить, волновать, заботить

to be concerned about smb. 's health — беспокоиться о чьем-л. здоровье everybody was concerned at the news — все были встревожены /взволнованы/известием

matter of public concern — вопрос, предмет или дело, затрагивающие общественные интересы

nurture ['nE:Cq] v

1. воспитывать; обучать delicately nurtured girl—благовоспитанная девица

2. с.-х. выращивать; выводить (породу, сорт); лелеять; питать (привязанность и т. п.); вынашивать (план и

т. п.)

Synonyms: nurture, cultivate, foster, nurse. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to promote and

sustain the growth and development of: nurturing hopes; cultivating tolerance; foster friendly relations;

nursed, the fledgling business through an economic downturn.

note [nqVt] v упоминать; отмечать; указывать

as the author notes ... — как отмечает /указывает/автор ...

as I noted before — как я уже /выше/ заметил /упомянул, сказал/

I must just note that...—должен лишь заметить, что ...

foster ['fPstq] v благоприятствовать, способствовать развитию; поощрять

to foster artistic talent — способствовать развитию художественного таланта

resurgence [rI'sE:G(q)ns] n возрождение, воскрешение

the resurgence of militarism — возрождение милитаризма

1 .A continuing after interruption; a renewal.

2.A restoration to use, acceptance, activity, or vigor; a revival.

height [haIt] n высота, вышина

at a height of 3000 metres above sea level— на высоте 3000 метров подуровнем моря

ratification [,rxtIfI 'keIS(q)n] n юр. утверждение; разрешение, ратификация

conditional [partial] ratification — условная [частичная] ратификация

to be subject to ratification — подлежать ратификации

To approve and give formal sanction to; confirm

commitment [kq'mItmqnt] n обязательство

to meet commitments — выполнять обязательства

to make no commitments — не связывать себя обязательствами

1.a. A pledge to do. b. Something pledged, especially an engagement by contract involving financial obligation.

2.The state of being bound emotionally or intellectually to a course of action or to another person or persons: a deep commitment to liberal policies; a profound commitment to the family.

robust [rq'bAst, 'rqVbAst] а здоровый, крепкий, сильный

robust young fellow — крепкий /дюжий/малый

LABOR UNIONS

executive [Ig'zekjVtIv] n. руководитель, администратор; (ответственный) сотрудник

major [minor] executives —руководящие [рядовые] сотрудники

business executive —руководящий работник, администратор (компании, корпорации и т. п.) due [dju:] n pl. сборы, налоги, пошлины

harbour /port/ dues — портовые сборы

dues and fees — эк. сборы (в отличие от налогов)

carpenter ['ka:pIntq] n плотник; столяр

fair [feq] а честный; справедливый, беспристрастный; законный

fairplay — а) игра по правилам; б) честная игра; честность; справедливость

fair price — справедливая/настоящая/цена

pledge [pleG] v давать торжественное обещание, заверять

they pledged themselves to save their comrades — они торжественно поклялись спасти своих товарищей hire ['haIq] v нанимать

he was hired to do this job — его наняли для выполнения этой работы

to take concerted action — предпринять согласованные действия

conspiracy [kqn'spIrqsI] n заговор, тайный или преступный сговор

conspiracy to overthrow the government — заговор, имеющий целью свержение правительства engage [In'geIG] v участвовать

to engage in local politics — принимать участие в местной политической жизни

ruling ['ru:lIN] n постановление, решение (суда, председателя собрания)

to ask for a ruling — просить председателя или судью вынести постановление

charge [CRG] n обвинение

he was arrested on a charge of murder — он был арестован по обвинению в убийстве legislature ['leGIs leiCq, -lqCq] n законодательный орган

state legislature — законодательное собрание штата (в США) respond [rI' spPnd] v реагировать, отзываться (на что-л.)

to respond to an appeal — реагировать на просьбу

STRUGGLES AND SUCCESSES

surge [sE:G] n большая волна; резкий скачок; всплеск

a surge of interest — подъём интереса

commonplace ['kPmqnpleIs] n '

1. избитое выражение; банальность it's a mere commonplace — это общее место

2. обычная вещь today television is a commonplace — телевидение ныне вошло в быт suppress [sq'pres] v подавлять (восстание и т. п.)

meetings were suppressed by the police — полиция разогнала митинги

n response to your inquiry—в ответ на ваш запрос

scope [skqVp] n пределы; масштаб, размах, сфера, поле (деятельности)

the scope of smb. 's activities — поле /сфера/ чьей-л. деятельности

enduring [In'djV(q) rIN] а прочный; стойкий

enduring peace — прочный мир

comprise [kqm'praIz] v включать, заключать в себе, составлять; охватывать; состоять из

the Examining Board comprises several members — экзаменационная комиссия состоит из нескольких членов

craft union — профсоюз ремесленников

swell [swel] v (swelled [-d]; swollen) увеличиваться, нарастать, усиливаться

the ranks of the unemployed are daily swelling —ряды безработных увеличиваются с каждым днем

the population swelled— население (сильно) выросло

seek [si:k] v (sought)( часто for, after) искать, разыскивать; пытаться найти, добиваться

to seek smb. 's approval [smb. 's help] — добиваться чьего-л. одобрения

I .To try to locate or discover; search for.

2.To endeavor to obtain or reach: seek a college education.

3.То go to or toward: Water seeks its own level.

4.To inquire for; request: seek directions from a police officer.

5. To try; endeavor: seek to do good.

Synonyms: seek, hunt. quest, search. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to make an effort to find

something": seeking information; hunting through the telephone book for a number; questing after treasure;

searched his face for his reaction.

overthrow [,qVvq 'TrqV] v (overthrew; overthrown) свергать, ниспровергать; уничтожать

to overthrow a government — свергнуть правительство

sabotage ['sxbqtRZ] n саботаж

tie up ['taI'Ap] phr v l) связывать, увязывать, препятствовать; приостанавливать; замораживать, не давать ходу

to tie up money — замораживать средства

to tie up property [a succession] — накладывать ограничения на пользование имуществом [наследством] copper ['kPpq] n медь

hot coppers — пересохшее горло (с похмелья); to cool one's coppers — опохмеляться

prosecution [,prPsI 'kju:S(q)n] n судебное преследование

to be liable to prosecution — наказуемо законом

sentiment ['sentimqnt] n чувство; мнение (чаще pl), отношение, настроение

public sentiments — общественное мнение

to express [to change] one's sentiments — выразить [изменить] своё мнение /отношение/

injure ['InGq] v ушибить, повредить, ранить

to be injured in an accident — получить травму в аварии

seaman ['si: mqn] n (pl -men [-men]) моряк, мореплаватель

stride [straId] n большой шаг; (обыкн. pl) успехи; прогресс, продвижение

to make great /rapid/strides—делать большие успехи

RED SCARES AND DEPRESSION

trigger ['trIgq] v инициировать, вызывать (что-л.), дать начало (чему-л.) (тж. trigger off) a spark triggered the explosion — искра вызвала взрыв

scare [skeq] n паника; панический страх

baseless scare — беспричинный страх: to strike smb. with scare — вселять ужас в кого-л. Synonyms: friehten, scare, alarm, terrify, terrorize, startle, panic. These verbs mean to cause a person to experience fear. Frighten and the less formal scare are the most widely applicable terms: "Better be killed than frightened to death" (Robert Smith Surtees). Don't let the size of the task scare you. Alarm implies the often sudden onset of fear or apprehension: Her sudden and inexplicable loss of weight alarmed her doctor. Terrify implies overwhelming, often paralyzing fear: "The regulars, terrified by the yells of the Indians . . . gathered themselves into a body" (George Bancroft). Terrorize implies fear that intimidates; the word sometimes suggests deliberate coercion: "premeditated and systematized terrorizing of the civil populations" (Edith Wharton). Startle suggests fear that shocks momentarily and may cause a sudden, involuntary movement of the body: The clap of thunder startled us. Panic implies sudden frantic fear that often impairs self-control and rationality: The radio drama was so realistic that it panicked listeners who tuned in after it had begun.

assume [q'sju:m] v предполагать, допускать

let us assume that this is true — допустим, что это правда

anarchist ['xsnqkIst] n анархист

hostile ['hPstaIl] а враждебный; недружелюбный; враждебно относящийся (к чему-л.)

to be hostile to smth. — враждебно /отрицательно/относиться к чему-л.; принимать в штыки что-л.

l.Of, relating to, or characteristic of an enemy: hostile forces; hostile acts.

2.Feeling or showing enmity or ill will; antagonistic: a hostile remark,

3.Unfavorable to health or well-being; inhospitable or adverse: a hostile climate,

pendulum ['pendjVlqm] n маятник

the pendulum swung — положение изменилось

the swing of the pendulum — резкое изменение общественного мнения

the Depression — амер. кризис 1929—1932гг. (тж. the Great Depression)

vow [vaV] v давать обет, клятву, зарок; клясться, торжественно обещать

to vow celibacy — дать обет безбрачия; to vow vengeance against smb. — поклясться отомстить кому-н.. Synonyms: promise, covenant, engage, pledee. plisht. swear, vow. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to declare solemnly that one will perform or refrain from a particular course of action": promise to write soon; covenanting to exchange their prisoners of war; engaged to reorganize the department; pledged to uphold the law; plighted their loyalty to the king; swore to get revenge; vowed they would never surrender.

bargain ['ba:gin] v торговаться, вести переговоры, договариваться (об условиях и т. п.)

to bargain a new wage increase — вести переговоры об увеличении заработной платы

reversal [ri'vE:s(q)l] n полное изменение, полная перестановка или перемена; манипуляция

reversal of feeling — переход какого-л. чувства в противоположное

reversal of policy — коренной поворот в политике

encourage [In 'kArIG] v, ободрять; поощрять, поддерживать

to encourage the arts — поощрять искусства;

I am encouraged to do the same — мне рекомендуют поступить так же

before long — скоро, вскоре

defense [di'fens] = defence

Department of Defense — амер. министерство обороны; Secretary of Defense — амер. министр обороны

THE WORK FORCE TODAY

wave [weIv] n волна, вал; подъём, взрыв

a wave of indignation — взрыв негодования

a crime wave — волна /подъём/преступности

sweep [swi:p] v (swept) мести; нестись, мчаться, рваться (тж. sweep along, sweep over)

to sweep into the realm of international politics — вторгаться в международную политическую жизнь

hurricanes swept over the country —ураганы пронеслись над всей страной

charge [CRG] v юр. обвинять; выдвигать или (официально) предъявлять обвинение

•we ought not to charge what we cannot prove — нельзя выдвигать бездоказательные обвинения

to charge that... — амер. выдвигать обвинение в том. что ...

outlaw ['aVtlO:] v изгонять за пределы страны; объявлять вне закона; амер. лишать законной силы

to outlaw war — поставить войны вне закона;

ban [bxn] v налагать запрет, запрещать

to ban a play [a demonstration, a meeting] — запретить пьесу [демонстрацию, собрание]

1. То prohibit, especially by official decree.

2. To deprive (a person suspected of illegal activity) of the right of free movement and association with others.

Synonyms: forbid, ban, enjoin, interdict, prohibit, proscribe. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to refuse to allow": laws that forbid speeding; banned smoking; was enjoined from broadcasting the news item; interdict trafficking in drugs; rules that prohibit swimming in the reservoir; proscribed the importation of raw fruits and vegetables. Antonyms: permit.

merge [mE:G] v поглощать; сливать, соединять (банки, предприятия и т. п.)

these banks were merged (into one large organization) — эти банки слились /объединились/ (в одну

ольшую организацию)

stronghold ['strPNhqVld] n крепость, воен. опорный пункт

that city was a stronghold of Protestantism — этот город был оплотом протестантства

replacement [rI'pleIsmqnt] n замещение, замена

the replacement of worn-out parts — замена изношенных деталей; replacement parts — запасные части departure [dI'pRCq] n 1) уклонение, отклонение, отступление (от чего-л.)

departures from the general rule — отклонения /отступления/ от общего правила

commute [kq'mju:t] (ежедневная) поездка на работу и обратно (обыкн. по сезонному билету) facsimile [fxk'sImIlI] n факсимиле; факсимильная связь

in facsimile — в виде факсимиле

1. An exact copy or reproduction, as of a document.

a. A method of transmitting images or printed matter by electronic means.

b. An image so transmitted. In this sense, also called fax.

THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC SYSTEM

selfish ['selfIS] а эгоистичный, эгоистический, себялюбивый

to act from a selfish motive — действовать из эгоистических /корыстных/побуждений

gain [geIn] v получать; приобретать

to gain experience (as one grows older) — приобретать опыт /набираться опыта/ (с одами) corollary [kq'rPl(q)rI] n (неизбежный) вывод; следствие, результат, итог

interfere [,Intq 'fIq] v (in) вмешиваться, вторгаться (в чьи-л. дела, отношения и т. п.)

to interfere in the internal affairs of a country — вмешиваться во внутренние дела страны

THE STOCK MARKET

acquire [q'kwaiq] v приобретать; получать; достигать; овладевать (знаниями, навыками и т. п.)

to acquire friends — приобрести друзей

to acquire currency — стать распространённым, распространиться; стать употребительным (о

слове, выражении и т. п.)

stock амер. акция, акции; акционерный капитал; брит. ценные бумаги, фондовые ценности, обязательства;

облигации; фонды

bond облигация; закладная; долговое обязательство

unrelated [,AnrI'leItId] а несвязанный, не имеющий отношения

unrelated to the realities of life — не имеющий отношения к реальной ействительности transaction [trxn'zxkS(q)n] n сделка; дело; трансакция

mixed up in shady transactions — замешанный в сомнительных сделках

stock exchange ['stPkIks,CeInG] фондовая биржа

great transactions at the stock-exchange — крупные сделки на фондовой бирже

a snapback of prices on the stock exchange — неожиданный подъём цен на бирже

1.A place where stocks, bonds, or other securities are bought and sold

2. An association of stockbrokers who meet to buy and sell stocks and bonds according to fixed regulations.

Also called stock market.

stock market ['stPk,mRkIt] фондовая биржа

the swamis are saying the stock market is due for a drop — наши оракулы говорят, что на бирже нужно

ожидать падения курса

modest means — скромные /ограниченные/ средства

THE SYSTEM MODIFIED

foregoing [fO:'gqVIN] а предшествующий, вышеупомянутый

the foregoing description — предшествующее описание

toll [tqVl] n пошлина, сбор; дань

heavy toll — тяжёлая дань, большие жертвы

automobile accidents take a heavy toll of human lives — автомобильные катастрофы уносят много

человеческих жизней

rent takes a heavy toll of his income — арендная плата съедает значительную часть его дохода

put in проводить время за

to put in an hour's practice every day — упражняться по часу в день

to put in an extra hour's work — поработать ещё часок

reject [rI'Gekt] v отвергать, отклонять

to reject an offer — отклонить предложение, отказаться от предложения

Synonyms: refuse, decline, reject, spurn, rebuff. These verbs all mean to be unwilling to accept, consider, or receive someone or something. Refuse usually implies determination and often brusqueness: "The commander. . . refused to discuss questions of right" (George Bancroft). To decline is to refuse courteously: "I declined election to the National Institute of Arts and Letters some years ago, and now I must decline the Pulitzer Prize " (Sinclair Lewis). Reject suggests the discarding of someone or something as unsatisfactory, defective, or useless;

it implies categoric refusal: "He again offered himselfor enlistment and was again rejected" (Arthur S.M. Hutchinson). To spurn is to reject scornfully or contemptuously: "The more she spurns my love,/The more it grows " (Shakespeare). Rebuff pertains to blunt, often disdainful rejection: "He had. . . forgotten himself, had gone too far in his advances, and had been rebuffed" (Robert Louis Stevenson).

to take advantage of smb — а) обмануть /перехитрить/ кого-л.; б) эксплуатировать кого-л

to take (full) advantage of smth — а) воспользоваться чём-л.; использовать что-л. в своих интересах

oversight ['qVvqsait] n надзор, присмотр

to have the oversight of children — присматривать за детьми

to be under the oversight of— быть под надзором (кого-л.)

eliminate [I'lImIneIt] v устранять, исключать

to eliminate errors—устранять ошибки

Synonyms: eliminate, eradicate, liquidate, purse. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to wipe out someone or something undesirable, especially by using drastic methods such as banishment or execution":

eliminated all political opposition; eradicate guerrilla activity; liquidating traitors; purged all the imprisoned dissidents.

shoddy ['SPdI] n нечто низкопробное, дешёвка

•writers of shoddy — авторы низкопробных поделок

evil ['i:v(q)l] n зло;порок

evil comes from evil — зло порождает зло; keep thy tongue from evil — библ. удерживай язык твой от зла an evil of long standing — закоренелый порок

insistence [In'sIs(q)ns] n настояние, настойчивое требование; настойчивое утверждение

his insistence on his innocence — его настойчивые утверждения о своей невиновности

unfetter [An'fetq] v снимать оковы; освобождать

it unfetters the mind from prejudices of every kind— это освобождает ум от всякого рода предрассудков

ample ['xmp(q)l] а обильный; богатый

ample resources — богатые /большие/ресурсы

bridle ['braidl] v взнуздывать; обуздывать, сдерживать

to bridle one's temper — обуздать нрав

to bridle one's ambitions [passions] — сдержать желания [страсти]

saddle ['sxdl] v седлать; оседлать

to saddle a horse [a mule] — седлать лошадь [мула]

scarcely ['skeqslI] adv едва, почти (не)

scarcely thirty people — не больше тридцати человек

he is scarcely seventeen years old— ему нет и семнадцати

complaint [kqm'pleInt] n недовольство; жалоба, сетование

you have no cause /ground/of/for/complaint —у вас нет оснований жаловаться

reduce [rI'dju:s] v (обыкн. to) снижать; сбавлять, уменьшать; сокращать

to reduce expenditure [production, staff] — сокращать расходы [производство, штат] Synonyms: decrease, lessen, reduce, dwindle, abate, diminish, subside. These verbs mean to become or cause to become smaller or less. Decrease and lessen, interchangeable in most contexts, refer to steady or gradual diminution: Traffic decreases on holidays. Lack of success decreases confidence. Use your seat belt to lessen the clanger of injury in an accident. Reduce emphasizes bringing down, as in size, degree, or intensity: The workers reduced their wage demands. Dwindle suggests decreasing bit by bit to a vanishing point: Their savings dwindled away. Abate stresses a decrease in amount or intensity and suggests a reduction of excess: Toward evening the fire began to abate. Diminish implies taking away or removal: An occasional outburst didn't diminish my respect/or her. . Subside implies a falling away to a more normal level: The wild enthusiasm the team's victory aroused did not subside.

cumbersome ['kAmbqs(q)m] a 1) тяжёлый; громоздкий; нескладный

the cumbersome old table with twisted legs — громоздкий старый стол с изогнутыми ножками

2) обременительный

cumbersome ceremonies — обременительные формальности

occasionally [q'keIZ(q)nlI] adv изредка, временами; время от времени, иногда

I see him occasionally — я изредка вижу его

surpass [sq 'pRs] v превосходить

the results surpassed all my hopes —результаты превзошли все мои ожидания

1.To be beyond the limit, powers, or capacity of; transcend: misery that surpasses comprehension.

2.To be or go beyond, as in degree or quality; exceed.

software ['sPftweq] n вчт. программное или математическое обеспечение

Chapter Six

A diverse educational system: structure, standards, and challenges

American education is a complex topic because a single school can draw upon resources from several different public and private institutions. For example, a student may attend a private high school whose curriculum must meet standards set by the state, some of whose science courses may be financed by federal funds, and whose sports teams may play on local, publicly owned fields.

Despite this complexity, however, it is possible to describe the broad contours of American education.

MANY CHOICES

Almost 90 percent of American students below the college level attend public elementary and secondary schools, which do not charge tuition but rely on local and state taxes for funding. Traditionally, elementary school includes kindergarten through the eighth grade. In some places, however, elementary school ends after the sixth grade, and students attend middle school, or junior high school, from grades seven through nine. Similarly, secondary school, or high school, traditionally comprises grades nine through twelve, but in some places begins at the tenth grade.

Most of the students who do not attend public elementary and secondary schools attend private schools, for which their families pay tuition. Four out of five private schools are run by religious groups. In these schools religious instruction is part of the curriculum, which also includes the traditional academic courses. (Religious instruction is not provided in public schools. The issue of prayer in public schools is discussed in chapter 4.) There is also a small but growing number of parents who educate their children themselves, a practice known as home schooling.

The United States does not have a national school system. Nor, with the exception of the military academies (for example, the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland), are there schools run by the federal government. But the government provides guidance and funding for federal educational programs in which both public and private schools take part, and the U.S. Department of Education oversees these programs.

In American parlance, a college is a four-year institution of higher learning that offers courses in related subjects. A liberal arts college, for example, offers courses in literature, languages, history, philosophy, and the sciences, while a business college offers courses in accounting, investment, and marketing. Many colleges are independent and award bachelor's degrees to those completing a program of instruction that typically takes four years. But colleges can also be components of universities. A large university typically comprises several colleges, graduate programs in various fields, one or more professional schools (for example, a law school or a medical school), and one or more research facilities. (Americans often use the word "college" as shorthand for either a college or a university.)

Every state has its own university, and some states operate large networks of colleges and universities: The State University of New York, for instance, has more than 60 campuses in New York State. Some cities also have their own public universities. In many areas, junior or community colleges provide a bridge between high school and four-year colleges for some students. In junior colleges, students can generally complete their first two years of college courses at low cost and remain close to home.

Unlike public elementary and secondary schools, public colleges and universities usually charge tuition. However, the amount often is much lower than that charged by comparable private institutions, which do not receive the same level of public support. Many students attend college -- whether public or private -- with the benefit of federal loans that must be repaid after graduation.

About 25 percent of colleges and universities are privately operated by religious groups. Most of these are open to students of all faiths. There are also many private institutions with no religious ties. Whether public or private, colleges depend on three sources of income: student tuition, endowments (gifts made by benefactors), and government funding.

There is no clear distinction between the quality of education provided at public and private colleges or institutions. The public universities of California and Virginia, for example, are generally rated on a par with the Ivy League, an association of eight prestigious private schools in the northeastern United States. This does not mean that all institutions are equal, however. A student who has graduated from a highly regarded college may have a distinct advantage as he or she seeks employment. Thus, competition to get into the more renowned schools can be intense.

A college student takes courses in his or her "major" field (the area of study in which he or she chooses to specialize), along with "electives" (courses that are not required but chosen by the student). It has been estimated that American colleges and universities offer more than 1,000 majors.

EDUCATION, A LOCAL MATTER

From Hawaii to Delaware, from Alaska to Louisiana, each of the 50 states has its own laws regulating education. From state to state, some laws are similar while others are not. For example:

•All states require young people to attend school. The age limit varies, however. Most states require attendance up to age 16, some up to 18. Thus, every child in America receives at least 11 years of education. This is true regardless of a child's sex, race, religion, learning problems, physical handicaps, ability to speak English, citizenship, or status as an immigrant. (Although some members of Congress have advocated permitting the states to deny public education to children of illegal immigrants, such a proposal has not become law.)

•Some states play a strong central role in the selection of learning material for their students. For example, state committees may decide which textbooks can be purchased with state funds. In other states, such decisions are left to local school officials.

Although there is no national curriculum in the United States, certain subjects are taught in virtually all elementary and secondary schools throughout the country. Almost every elementary school, for example, teaches mathematics; language arts (including reading, grammar, writing, and literature); penmanship; science; social studies (including history, geography, citizenship, and economics); and physical education. In many schools, children are taught how to use computers, which have also become integral parts of other courses.

In addition to required courses -- for example, a year of American history, two years of literature, etc. -- secondary schools, like colleges, typically offer electives. Popular electives include performing arts, driver's education, cooking, and "shop" (use of tools, carpentry, and repair of machinery).

CHANGING STANDARDS

Until the 1950s required courses were many, electives few. In the 1960s and 1970s, the trend was to give students more choices. By the 1980s, however, parents and educators were taking a second look at this practice. The primary reason for their concern was the possible connection between the growth of electives and the slow but steady decline of American students' average scores on standardized tests of mathematics, reading, and science.

At the same time, college administrators and business executives began to complain that some high school graduates needed remedial courses in the so-called three R's: reading, writing, and arithmetic. About 99 percent of American adults reported in the 1980 census that they could read and write. But critics claimed that about 13 percent of America's 17-year-olds were "functionally illiterate." That is, they were unable to carry out such everyday tasks as understanding printed instructions and filling out a job application.

Experts scrutinized every conceivable cause for the decline in average scores in the early 1980s. One target was television, which was accused of producing mediocre programs. And American children, critics said, watched too much TV, an average of 25 hours a week. School boards were criticized for paying teachers too little, with the result that good ones tended to leave the field of education, and for giving students easier material to work with so that all of them could get a diploma -- a phenomenon known as "dumbing down" the curriculum.

No single cause was identified for what ailed American secondary education. Similarly, there was no one solution. The U.S. Department of Education established a national commission to examine the question. In 1983 the commission made several recommendations: lengthen the school day and year, formulate a new core curriculum for all students (four years of English; three years each of math, science, and social studies; a half-year of computer science), and raise the standards of performance in each subject. As a result, many schools have tightened their requirements, and test scores for American children have been rising.

In 1989 President George Bush and the governors of all 50 states gave the movement to reform American education a new impetus when they set six goals to be achieved by the year 2000:

•That all children will start school ready to learn. •That 90 percent of all high school students will graduate. •That all students will achieve competence in core subjects at certain key points in their progress. •That American students will be first in the world in math and science achievement. •That every American adult will be literate and have the skills to function as a citizen and a worker. •That all schools will be free of drugs and violence and offer a disciplined environment that is conducive to learning.

Congress established a program called Goals 2000, by which the states receive federal grants to help them reach the goals. By 1996, progress had been made -- 86 percent of American students completed high school, scores on national math and science tests had gone up one full grade, and half of all four-year-olds attended programs to prepare them for school.

Meanwhile, there has been an effort to establish national standards in math, science, English, and history -- an endeavor that President Bill Clinton strongly supports. Speaking to the National Governors Association education summit in 1996, he said, "I believe the most important thing you can do is to have high expectations for students -- to make them believe they can learn,...to assess whether they're learning or not, and to hold them accountable as well as to reward them."

SOCIAL ISSUES IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

In addition to the challenge to be excellent, American schools have been facing novel problems. They must cope with an influx of immigrant children, many of whom speak little or no English. They must respond to demands that the curriculum reflect the various cultures of all children. Schools must make sure that students develop basic skills for the job market, and they must consider the needs of nontraditional students, such as teen-age mothers.

Schools are addressing these problems in ways that reflect the diversity of the U.S. educational system. They are hiring or training large numbers of teachers of English as a second language and, in some communities, setting up bilingual schools. They are opening up the traditional European-centered curriculum to embrace material from African, Asian, and other cultures.

Schools are also teaching cognitive skills to the nearly 40 percent of American students who do not go on to higher education. In the words of a recent report by the Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, "A strong back, the willingness to work, and a high school diploma were once all that was necessary to make a start in America. They are no longer. A well-developed mind, a continued willingness to learn and the ability to put knowledge to work are the new keys to the future of our young people, the success of our business, and the economic well-being of the nation."

A SNAPSHOT OF AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION

The United States leads the industrial nations in the proportion of its young people who receive higher education. For some careers -- law, medicine, education, engineering -- a college education is a necessary first step. More than 60 percent of Americans now work in jobs that involve the handling of information, and a high school diploma is seldom adequate for such work. Other careers do not strictly require a college degree, but having one often can improve a person's chances of getting a job and can increase the salary he or she is paid.

The widespread availability of a college education in America dates back to 1944, when Congress passed a law popularly known as the GI Bill. (GI -- meaning "government issue" -- was a nickname for an American soldier, and the law provided financial aid to members of the armed forces after World War II was over.) By 1955 more than 2 million veterans of World War II and the Korean War had used the GI Bill to go to college. Many of them came from poor families and would not have had the chance to go to college without the law. The program's success changed the American image of who should attend college.

About the same time, the percentage of women in American colleges began to grow steadily; in 1993 women received 54 percent of all degrees awarded, compared to 24 percent in 1950. With the end of racial segregation in the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans also entered colleges in record numbers. The percentage of African Americans who go on to college, however, is still lower than the general population. In 1992, 47.9 percent of African-American high school graduates were enrolled in college, compared with 61.7 percent of all high school graduates.

LIBERAL OR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION?

Like high schools, American colleges are sometimes criticized for discarding required courses and offering too many electives. In the mid-1980s the Association of American Colleges issued a report that called for teaching a body of common knowledge to all college students. A similar report, "Involvement in Learning," issued by the National Institute of Education, concluded that the college curriculum had become "excessively...work-related." The report also warned that college education may no longer be developing in students "the shared values and knowledge" that traditionally bind Americans together.

These reports coincided with a trend away from the liberal arts. Instead, students were choosing major fields designed to prepare them for specific jobs. In 1992, 51 percent of the bachelor's degrees were conferred in the fields of business and management, communications, computer and information sciences, education, engineering, and health sciences.

This trend raises questions that apply to the educational philosophy of all industrialized countries. In an age of technological breakthroughs and highly specialized disciplines, is there still a need for the generalist with a broad background and well-developed abilities to reason and communicate? And if the answer to that question is yes, should society take steps to encourage its colleges and universities to produce more such generalists? Like their counterparts in other countries, American educators continue to debate these questions.

draw [dro:] v (drew; drawn) to draw on smth. обращаться к чему-л .

attend [a'tend]v посещать, присутствовать

curriculum [kq'rIkjVlqm] n (pl -la) курс обучения, учебный план

set [set] v (set) устанавливать, определять, назначать

science ['saIqns] n собир. естественные науки (тж. natural sciences, physical sciences)

contour ['kPntVq] n контур, очертание, абрис; амер. положение дел, развитие событий

MANY CHOICES

elementary /primary/ school — начальная школа

secondary /амер. high/ school — средняя школа

charge [tSQ:dZ] v назначать, запрашивать цену, плату; взимать

tuition [tju:'IS(q)n] n обучение; плата за обучение

funding ['fAndIN] n эк. финансирование

grade [greid] n класс (в школе); aмер. оценка, отметка

middle school — средняя школа

junior high school ['dZu:nIq"haIsku:l] n неполная средняя школа (7, 8. 9 классы)

comprise [kqm'praIz] v включать, заключать в себе, составлять; охватывав, состоять из

run [rAn] v (ran, run) бежать, бегать; руководить (учреждением); вести (дело, предприятие и т п )

instruction [In'strAkS(q)n] n обучение, преподавание

exception [Ik'sepS(q)n] n исключение, изъятие

naval ['neIv(q)l] a военно-морской; морской, флотский

guidance ['gaId(q)ns] n руководство; водительство

oversee ["qVvq'si:] v (oversaw; overseen) надзирать, наблюдать за (чем-л, кем-л), осуществлять надзор

parlance ['pQ:lqns] n манера говорить или выражаться; язык

liberal arts ["lIb(q)rql'Q:ts] гуманитарные науки; общеобразовательные предметы (в противоп. профессиональному

обучению)

award [a'wo:d] v присуждать (что-л.), награждать (чём-л.)

bachelor ['bxtS(q)lq] n холостяк; бакалавр

the degree of bachelor (оf master, of doctor ) – (ученая) степень бакалавра (магистра, доктора)

complete [kqm'pli:t] v заканчивать, завершать

graduate ['grxdZVIt] n выпускник учебного заведения

shorthand ['SO:thxnd] n стенография

research [rI'sE:tS] n исследование, изучение, изыскание, научно-исслсдовательская работа

facility [fq'sIlItI] n p1 оборудование; средства; устройства; установка, аппаратура объект или сооружение; р1 эк. производственные мощности

network ['netwE:k] n сеть

campus ['kxmpqs] n амер. территория университета, колледжа (включая парк)

community college [kq'mju:nItI"kPlIdZ] амер. местный колледж (обыкн. среднее учебное заведение для местного

населения)

junior college ['dZu:nIq"kPlIdZ] амер. колледж с двухгодичным курсом (типа техникума)

unlike [An'laIk] prep в отличие от

comparable ['kAmp(q)rqb(q)l] а сравнимый, сопоставимый; соизмеримый

to give smb. the benefit of one's experience [knowledge] — поделиться с кем-л. своим опытом [знаниями]

he gave us the benefit of his advice — он помог нам советом

faith [feIT] n вера, доверие

endowment [In'daVmqnt] n вклад, дар, пожертвование; амер. тж. (дарственный) фонд

benefactor ["benI'fxktq] n благодетель; благотворитель, благожелатель

on /upon/ a par with — наравне, на одном уровне, в одинаковом положении

regard [rI'gQ:d] v (as) рассматривать, считать; уважать

elective [I'lektIv] n амер. факультативная дисциплина (в школе, колледже)

EDUCATION, A LOCAL MATTER

handicap ['hxndIkxp] n помеха, препятствие; физический или умственный недостаток; дефект; увечье

deny [dI'naI] v отрицать; отвергать

to deny the possibility of smth. — отрицать возможность чего-л.

virtually ['vE:tSVqlI] adv фактически, практически, в действительности, реально; по существу, на деле, в сущности

penmanship ['penmqnSIp] n каллиграфия, чистописание

performing arts [pq'fO:mIN'Q:ts] n исполнительские виды искусства (драма, музыка, танцы и т. п.)

carpentry ['kQ:pIntrI] n плотничье дело; плотницкие работы; деревообделочное производство

CHANGING STANDARDS

choice [tSOIs] n выбор, отбор

to make a choice of smth. — выбирать /отбирать/ что-л.

steady ['stedI] a прочный, твёрдый, устойчивый, постоянный, стабильный; ровный, равномерный

score [skO:] n счёт; долг, задолженность (обыкн. в баре и т. п.); амер. оценка, отметка (на экзамене и т. п.)

remedial [rI'mi:dIql] a исправительный, исправляющий; пед. коррективный

remedial classes — «классы выравнивания», дополнительные занятия с отстающими

remedial English — коррективный курс по английскому языку (с иммигрантами и т. п.)

illiterate [I'lIt(q)rIt] n неграмотный; безграмотный, необразованный человек; невежда

printed ['prIntId] a печатный; напечатанный

application for the position [for the job] — заявление о зачислении на должность [о приёме на работу]

scrutinize ['skru:tInaIz] v внимательно рассматривать, разглядывать; критически изучать, тщательно исследовать

to scrutinize a proposal [a plan] — тщательно изучать предложение [план]

conceivable [kqn'si:vqb(q)l] a постижимый, понятный; мыслимый, возможный

accuse [q'kju:z] v обвинять, винить

mediocre ["mi:dI'qVkq] a посредственный; среднего качества; заурядный; бездарный

mediocre people — посредственности, заурядные /бездарные/ люди

board [bO:d] n правление; совет; коллегия; департамент; министерство

a school board — попечительский совет

dumb [dAm] v редк. заставить замолчать; лишить дара речи

cause [kO:z] n причина, основание

ail [eIl] v хворать, чувствовать недомогание; заболевать

identify [aI'dentIfaI] v устанавливать, выявлять, определять

similarly ['sImIlqlI] adv подобным образом, так же

solution [sq'lu:S(q)n] n решение; разрешение (проблемы и т. п.); объяснение

solution of a difficulty — выход из затруднения

core curriculum [kO:] [kq'rIkjVlqm]— школ. основные предметы обучения; профилирующие дисциплины

social studies ["sqVS(q)l'stAdIz] социология; общественные науки

computer science [kqm'pju:tq"saIqns] информатика, наука о преобразовании информации

performance [pq'fO:mqns] n выполнение, исполнение

tighten ['taItn] v сжимать; натягивать, напрягать; затягивать, усиливать, укреплять

requirement [rI'kwaIqmqnt] n требование, необходимое условие

to fulfil the requirements of the law — выполнять требования закона

to meet the requirements — удовлетворять требованиям

impetus ['ImpItqs] n импульс, стимул, толчок, побуждение, движущая сила

graduate ['grxdZVeIt] v окончить высшее учебное заведение и получить степень бакалавра; амер. окончить любое учебное заведение

competence ['kPmpIt(q)ns] n умение, способность

key point — тактически важный пункт, опорный пункт

progress ['prqVgres] n прогресс, развитие, движение вперёд; успехи, достижения; ход, течение; развитие

to be in progress — происходить /иметь место/; выполняться

negotiations [preparations] are in progress — ведутся переговоры [приготовления]

the achievements of science — достижения науки

literate ['lIt(q)rIt] n грамотный человек; широко образованный человек

the literate — интеллигенция, образованные слои общества

drug [drAg] n лекарство, средство; медикамент: снадобье

conducive [kqn'dju:sIv] a способствующий, благоприятный

endeavour [In'devq] n (энергичная)попытка, старание, усилие

reward [rI'wO:d] v вознаграждать; воздавать должное

SOCIAL ISSUES IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

novel ['nPv(q)l] a новый, ранее не существовавший, неизведанный, непривычный

influx ['InflAks] n приток, прилив; наплыв

teen-age ['ti:neIdZ] a находящийся в возрасте от 13 до 19 лет; юношеский

embrace [Im'breIs] v обнимать, заключать в объятия; использовать, воспользоваться

cognіtive ['kPgnItIv] a познавательный

skill [skIl] n ловкость, умение

A SNAPSHOT OF AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION

snapshot ['snxpSPt] n моментальный снимок, моментальная фотография

handle ['hxndl] v обращаться (с чём-л. или с кем-л.)

availability [q"veIlq'bIlItI] n наличие

nickname ['nIkneIm] n прозвище

enroll [In'rqVl] v записывать (в члены организации); зачислять

LIBERAL OR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION?

discard [dIs'kQ:d] v отбрасывать, отвергать; отказываться

a matter of common knowledge — общеизвестная вещь, общеизвестный факт

body ['bPdI] n группа предметов, вещей; совокупность, комплекс

shared [Seqd] a совместного пользования, коллективный

shared apartment — коммунальная квартира

bind [baind] v (bound) вязать, связывать

coincide ["kqVIn'saId] v соответствовать, быть одинаковым, совпадать

liberal arts ["lIb(q)rql'Q:ts] n гуманитарные науки; амер. общеобразовательные предметы (в противоположность профессиональному обучению)

choose [tju:z] v (chose; chosen) выбирать; отбирать, подбирать

major ['meIdZq] n амер. главный, основной предмет специализации (в колледже)

confer [kqn'fE:] v даровать, жаловать, предоставлять

breakthrough ['breIkTru:] n достижение; открытие; победа (научная и г. п.); прорыв

generalist ['dZen(q)rqlIst] n универсал; эрудит; человек с широким образованием и кругом интересов

background ['bxkgraVnd] n 1) подготовка, образование; квалификация 2) (биографические или анкетные) данные, происхождение; общественный и моральный облик, связи и окружение (человека)

reason ['ri:z(q)n] v размышлять, рассуждать (логически); делать выводы, умозаключать

counterpart ['kaVntqpQ:t] n коллега, должностное лицо, занимающее аналогичный ноет (в другом учреждении, в другой стране и т. п.)