6. Speech Sounds as a Physical Phenomenon
- Human hearing: frequencies from 15 hertz to about 20,000 hertz
- The hertz (Hz) is a unit of frequency equaling one vibration or cycle per second.
- Ultrasonic sounds: frequencies above the range of normal human hearing (higher than about 20,000 Hz)
Sound Waves
- Some physical body must be set into vibration (it moves forward compressing the air and backward producing rarefactions behind the particles of the air)
- A sound wave is a series of alternate increases and decreases of air pressure; it moves outward
Sounds as a Physical Phenomenon
|
SOUNDS |
||
The resultant wave → |
periodical
|
non-periodical |
|
Vibrations → |
rhythmical
|
not rhythmical |
|
The auditory impression→ |
a musical tone
|
noise/speech-noise
|
|
SOUNDS |
|||
a simple sound |
a complex sound |
||
a musical note |
noise |
||
three perceptual characteristics
|
a mixture of frequencies/notes not harmonically related |
||
Three perceptual and physical characteristics of sounds
Pitch ➯ |
Frequency |
Loudness or intensity ➯ |
Amplitude |
Quality or timbre[‘tæmbə] ➯
|
Harmonic constitution or waveform |
Frequency
- The number of vibrations, or oscillations, a sound wave completes in a given time
- Measurement: Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second
- Perception: the pitch of a speech sound – “higher” or “lower” sounds
- The higher the pitch, the higher the pitch level: a male voice – about 150 cycles per second; a female voice – 240
- Dependence: certain physical properties of the vibrator – mass, length and tension
Intensity
- Perception: variations in the loudness of a sound
- The greater the amplitude of vibrations → the greater the intensity → the greater the pressure on the ear-drums → the louder the sound
- The distance at which a sound can be heard
- Measurement: decibels (dB)
Amplitude
- The maximum distance a wave travels from the normal, or zero, position
- Perception: volume
Duration
- the length or quantity of time during which the same vibration motions are maintained
- Measurement: milliseconds
- Wavelength: The distance between two successive crests of the wave
- The product of the wavelength and the frequency: the speed of the wave
Quality
- Overtones: additional components in the wave that vibrate in simple multiples of the base frequency, causing the differences in quality, or timbre
- The acoustic spectrum: the complex range of frequencies which make up the quality of a sound
- The sound’s formants: bands of energy which are characteristic of a particular sound
Spectrographic Analysis
- An acoustic description of a speech sound consists in describing its acoustic spectrum in terms of its formants, determined by means of spectrography (with the help of a sound spectrograph represented by spectrograms)
- It provides data for an acoustic description of speech sounds and a basis for the latter’s acoustic definitions and classification
The first comprehensive acoustic classification of speech sounds
- based on the spectrographic analysis
- worked out by R. Jakobson, C.G.M. Fant and M. Halle
- the acoustic features of speech sounds included in the classification form 12 binary distinctive oppositions, e.g.:
Vocalic/Non-Vocalic: o, a, e / k, f, b, z
Compact/Diffused: o,a,e / u,i,ə
Flat/Plain: o,u / a,ə
7. Articulatory Mechanism and Its Work
To analyse a speech sound physiologically and articulatorily some data of the articulatory mechanism and its work should be introduced. The speech is impossible without the following mechanisms:
- The power mechanism, The vibrator mechanism, The resonator mechanism, The obstructor mechanism
The Power Mechanism
- consists of the diaphragm, the lungs, the bronchi, the windpipe/the trachea, the glottis, the larynx, the mouth and nasal cavities
- The main function: to generate the air stream which passes from the lungs into the bronchial tubes, the windpipe, the larynx, the mouth or nasal cavity
The Vibrator Mechanism or the Voice Producing Mechanism
- The vocal cords – two horizontal folds of elastic tissue (thin pieces of muscle) situated in the larynx/voice box
- The space between the vocal cords is called the glottis. Three sounds produced in the glottis: [h, ɧ, ʔ]
Though acoustic investigations show that besides the vocal cords there are 2 more sources that participate in the production of the speech sounds.
Sources participating in the production of speech sound
The vocal cords |
➯ vowels |
The turbulent noise, which results from some constriction in the flow of air |
➯ voiceless constrictive consonants [s, f] |
The impulse wave, which is formed when a complete obstruction to the air-stream is suddenly broken |
➯ voiceless plosive consonants [p, t, k] |
Sources participating in the production of speech sound
The vocal cords + the turbulent noise |
➯ voiced constrictive consonants [v,z] |
The vocal cords + the impulse wave |
➯ voiced plosive consonants [b, d, g] |
The Resonator Mechanism
- The larynx, the pharynx, the mouth cavity, the nasal cavity
- It varies the size and the shape of the supraglottal cavities which function as resonating chambers esp. for vowel sounds
The Obstructor Mechanism
- The tongue, the lips, the teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate/the velum with the uvula
ORGANS OF SPEECH
ACTIVE
the movable speech organs which take an active part in the articulation of speech-sounds
PASSIVE
the fixed organs with which the active organs form obstruction
It should be born in mind that all the 4 mechanisms work simultaneously and that each speech sound is the result of the simultaneous work of all of them.
8. The Main Principles of Classification of Speech Sounds
The organs of speech are capable of uttering many different kinds of sounds. From the practical point of view it’s convenient to distinguish 2 types of speech sounds:
The Classification of Speech Sounds
SPEECH SOUNDS
VOWELS
are voiced sounds produced without any obstruction in the supra-glottal cavities and consequently have no noise component
CONSONANTS
are sounds produced with an obstruction to the air stream, in the articulation of consonants a kind of noise producing obstruction is formed in the supra-glottal cavities.
Vowels are sounds of pure musical tone while the consonants may be either sounds in which noise prevails over the tone (noise consonants) or sounds in which tone prevails over noise (sonorants)
Three Articulatory Criteria (which help to classify the speech sounds)
- the presence or absence of an articulatory obstruction to the air stream in the larynx or in the supra-glottal cavities;
- the concentrated or diffused character of muscular tension;
- the force of exhalation (the strength of the air stream);
VOWELS |
SONORANTS |
CONSONANTS |
No obstruction
|
An obstruction, but not narrow enough
|
An obstruction (complete, incomplete, intermittent) |
Diffused |
Concentrated |
Concentrated |
Weak
|
Relatively weak |
Strong
|
9. The Articulatory Classification of English Consonants
Consonants are made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth or nasal cavities; this is why in the production of consonantal sounds there’s certain degree of noise.
We can distinguish 7 main principles of the articulatory classification of English consonants.
The manner of noise production
The type of obstruction
The active organ of speech
The place of obstruction
The work of the vocal cords
The force of articulation
The position of the soft palate
1. The Manner of Noise Production
Noise consonants noise prevails over the tone [p b t d f v], etc.
Sonorants tone prevails over noise [m n ŋ l w j r]
2. The Type of Obstruction
The obstruction may be complete, incomplete and intermittent (скачкообразный).
Occlusive (смычные) the air-stream meets a complete obstruction in the mouth [p b t d k g m n ŋ]
Constrictive (щелевые) the air-stream meets a incomplete obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constructed [f v h s z Ɵ ð ʃ ʒ w r j l/ł]
Occlusive-Constrictive (affricates) produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction [ʧ ʤ]
3. The Active Organ of Speech
Labial made by the lips
- Bilabial [p b m w]
- Labio-Dental [f v]
Lingual
- Forelingual [t d s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ Ɵ ð n l r]
- Mediolingual [j]
- Backlingual [k g ŋ]
Glottal h
4. The Place of Obstruction
LINGUAL CONSONANTS
FORELINGUAL
DENTAL
INTERDENTAL [ð Ɵ]
POST- DENTAL
ALVEOLAR [t d n l s z]
POST- ALVEOLAR [r]
PALATO-ALVEOLAR [ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ]
MEDIOLINGUAL
PALATAL [j]
BACKLINGUAL
VELAR [k g ŋ]
Forelingual consonants
Apical [ð Ɵ t d l n s z] articulated by the tongue tip against the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge
Cacuminal [r] articulated by the tongue tip against the back part of the alveolar ridge with the tongue front lowered forming a spoon-shaped depression
5. The Work of the Vocal Cords
VOICED
VOICELESS
6. The Force of Articulation
LENIS relatively weak
FORTIS relatively strong, are pronounced with greater muscular tension and a stronger breath force
7. The Position of the Soft Palate
ORAL
NASAL
Co-articulation
A secondary articulation or an approximant articulation
- Labialization: adding up rounding (e.g. saw)
- Palatalization: raising of the front of the tongue (e.g. leak)
- Velarization: raising the back of the tongue (e.g. fell)
- Pharyngealization: retracting of the root of the tongue (in Arabic)
CONSONANTS
Unicentral
Bicentral
[ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ l w ]
Different approaches to the classification of consonants and their definitions
Different approaches to the classification of sounds TERMINOLOGY
Russian linguists
The type of obstruction
British linguists
- D. Jones – the state of the air passage at the place of obstruction
- A.C. Gimson – the manner of articulation
Russian Linguists
CONSONANTS
Noise consonants PLOSIVES AFFRICATES FRICATIVES
Sonorants OCCLUSIVE (NASAL) CONSTRICTIVE (ORAL)
CONSONANTS
OCCLUSIVE Noise consonants Sonorants
CONSTRICTIVE Noise consonants Sonorants
TRILLS Sonorants
British and American Linguists
D. Jones
Nasals [m, n, ŋ]
Laterals [l]
Glides / frictionless continuants (semivowels) [w, r, j]
(Flapped [r])
Roll [r]
Plosives
Affricates
Fricatives
Different approaches to the classification of consonants
The classification of consonants
Active organs of speech
Passive organs of speech
- D. Jones: both principles. BUT:
bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar
- L.V. Shcherba, G.P. Torsuyev: only active organs of speech
Differences in Terminology
apex → apical Russian Linguists Apical = consonants articulated with the active tip of the tongue Dorsal = consonants articulated with the blade (dorsum) of the tongue touching or approaching the upper teeth, while the tip is passive
|
dorsum → dorsal American and British Linguists Apex = the region of the tip and the blade of the tongue Dorsum = the front and the back parts of the tongue Apical = forelingual consonants
Dorsal = backlingual consonants Frontal = the mediolingual consonant [j] |
Differences in the definition of some consonants
[r] Russian linguists Cacuminal
American linguists Retroflex(ed)
[h]
L.V. Shcherba, G.P. Torsuyev. and most other Russian linguists Lower-pharyngeal
A.L. Trakhterov, American and British linguists Glottal or Laryngeal
10. The Articulatory Classification of English Vowels
Vowels are normally made with the air stream that meets no obstruction or narrowing in the mouth, pharyngeal and nasal cavities. That is why in the production of vowel sounds there’s no noise component.
The main principles of classification:
The stability of articulation
The position of the tongue
The lip position
The length or vowel duration
The degree of tenseness
The character of the vowel end
1. The Stability of Articulation
MONOPHTHONGS
pure (unchanging) vowel sounds. In its pronunciation the organ of speech don’t perceptibly change their position throughout the duration of the vowel
DIPHTHONGS
complex sounds consisting of 2 vowel elements pronounced so as to form a single syllable. In its pronunciation the organs of speech start in the position of one vowel and glide gradually in the direction of the another vowel. 1st – nucleus – strong and clear, distinct, 2nd – glide - weak
DIPHTHONGOIDS
In its pronunciation the organs of speech change their position but very slightly [i:], [u:]
DIPHTHONGS
RISING The Glide +The Nucleus
FALLING The Nucleus + The Glide
2. The position of the tongue
- The horizontal position: the position of the bulk of the tongue
- The vertical position: the height of the raised part of the tongue
The Horizontal Position of the Tongue
FRONT [i: e æ ɛə eı]
FRONT-RETRACTED [ı aı aʊ ıə]
CENTRAL [ɜ: ɜʊ ǝ ʌ]
BACK-ADVANCED [ʊ (ɑ:) ʊǝ]
BACK [u: ɒ ɔ: ɔı (ɑ:)]
The Vertical Position of the Tongue
HIGH or CLOSE NARROW [i: u:] BROAD [ı ʊ ıə ʊə]
MID-OPEN NARROW [ɜ: e eı ɜʊ] BROAD [(ɔ:) ǝ ɛə]
LOW or OPEN NARROW [(ʌ) ɔı] BROAD [ɑ: ɒ æ aı aʊ]
3. The Lip position
ROUNDED
UNROUNDED NEUTRAL SPREAD
4. The Character of the Vowel End
FREE or UNCHECKED long vowels and diphthongs
CHECKED Short vowels under the stress
5. The Length or Vowel Duration
LONG SHORT
6. The Degree of Tenseness
TENSE the organs of speech are tense
LAX are produced with lesser tenseness of the speech organs
Different approaches to the classification of vowels
Russian linguists: more precise classification (horizontal position of the tongue)
Differences in Terminology
British and some Russian linguists: [ə] and [ɜ:] – central
Other Russian linguists; Henry Sweet: [ə] and [ɜ:] – mixed
Differences in the definition of some vowels
[a:]
Back (G.P. Torsuyev)
Back-advanced (A.L. Trakhterov, D. Jones)
[əʊ]
Back-advanced
Central
[ʌ]
Mid Broad (G.P. Torsuyev)
Low Narrow (A.L. Trakhterov)
A Difference of Opinion on the Subject of English Tense and Lax Vowels
D. Jones: the terms can be applied only to close vowels
[i:] and [u:] are tense
[ɪ] and [u] are lax
G.P. Torsyev:
all the long English vowels, as well as [æ], as tense
the short vowels are lax
11. Differences in the articulation bases of the English and Russian consonants
The differences in the articulation bases between 2 languages are in the general tendencies their native speakers have, in the way they move and hold their lips and the tongue both in speech and in silence, in the way they coordinate the work of the obstructor and vibrator mechanisms, in the way they effect cv, vc, cc transitions.
The peculiarities of the articulation bases which give the rise to the differences in the system of consonants in English and Russian are the following:
1. the English forelingual consonants are articulated with the apico-avleolar position of the tip of the tongue. The Russian forelingual consonants are mainly dorsal (the blade is placed against the upper teeth, the tip of the tongue is passive) [т, д, н, с, з, ч] – dorsal, [л, ш, ж] – apical
2. in the production of the Russian consonants the bulk of the tongue is mainly in the front-mid part of the mouth resonator. The English so-called “soft” consonants are pronounced with the front secondary focus [ƒ, з, dз, tƒ]. The front secondary focus is formed by the middle part of the tongue which produces “secondary” articulation simultaneously with the primary focus or primary articulation. The Russian [п’, б’, м’, н’, в’, т’, д’, с’, з’, л’, р’, к’, г’] are also pronounced with the front secondary focus but the middle of the tongue in their production is raised higher to the hard palate. There is no opposition between palatalized – non-palatalized consonants in English. The soft-colouring of the English [ƒ, з, dз, tƒ] is non-phonemic (фонематический).
3. the English [w] and [f] are pronounced with the back secondary focus formed by the back part of the tongue, which is raised to the soft palate simultaneously with the formation of the primary focus. In the articulation of [w] the primary focus is formed by the lips which are rounded but not protruded, as it happens when the Russian [у] is pronounced.
4. the English voiceless fortis [p, t, k, f, s, ƒ, tƒ] are pronounced more energetically than similar Russian consonants. The English voiced consonants [d, b, g, v, δ, z з, dз] aren’t replaced by the corresponding voiceless sounds in word-final positions or before voiceless consonants
5. consonantal phonemes in English which have no counterparts in Russian are:
a. the bilabial, constrictive sonorant [w]
b. the interdental fricative consonants [0], [δ]
c. the voiced becentral affricate [dз]
d. the post-alveolar constrictive sonorant [r]
e. the glottal fricative [h]
f. the backlingual nasal sonorant [ŋ]
Consonantal phonemes in Russian which have no counterparts in English are:
the palatalized consonants [п’, б’, т’, д’, к’, р’]
the voiceless unicentral affricate [ц]
the rolled alveolar sonorant [р]
the backlingual fricative voiceless [х]
12. Differences in the articulation bases of the English and Russian vowels
Articulation bases of English and Russian vowel are different:
1. the lips. In the production of Russian vowels the lips are considerably protruded and rounded [о, у]. In the articulation of the similar English [o, o:, u, u:] protrusion (выпячивание) doesn’t take place. Englishmen have the so-called “flat-type” position of the lips, their lips are more tense than the lips of the Russian people and the corners of the lips are raised which resembles a smile.
2. the bulk of the tongue. In the articulation of English vowels the bulk of the tongue occupies more positions than in production of the Russian vowels. When the bulk of the tongue moves in the horizontal direction it may occupy a fully front and front retracted, a fully back and a back-advanced positions. Horizontal movements of the tongue condition the articulation of the [ə, ə:] vowels which are of mixed type. Each of the 3 vertical positions of the tongue (high, mid, low) in English is subdivided into a narrow and broad variety. Thus, 6 groups of sounds are formed in the system of English vowels. Such broad variety of the bulk of the tongue positions isn’t observed in the production of the Russian vowels. When classified according to the vertical movement of the tongue they may be divided into: high, mid, low. According to the horizontal movement of the bulk of the tongue Russian vowels may be subdivided into: front, central, back.
3. the length of the vowels. Long vowels in English are considered to be tense. There are no long vowels which can be opposed phonemically to short vowels in the Russian language. Length (and stability of articulation) in the Russian vowel system is an irrelevant (неуместный) feature.
4. the stability of articulation. There are monophthongs and diphthongoids in the Russian vowel system, but there are no diphthongs.
5. there are 6 vowel phonemes in Russian and 20 in English.
6. English vowels which have no counterparts (аналоги) in Russian:
long + short vowels [i: - ı], [o: - o]
slightly rounded but not protruded vowel s [u:, o:]
vowels articulated with the “flat” position of the lips in the [i:, I, e, ei] production
very low vowels such as [ æ, o, a:]
central [ə, ə:]
checked + free vowels
diphthongs [ei, ai, oi, iə, au, ou, eə, uə]
13. The Phoneme as the Fundamental Concept of Phonology
Speech sounds are grouped into language units called phonemes. The phoneme is a functional unit, because it’s capable of differentiating the meaning when 1 phoneme is opposed to the others in the same context.
All the phonemes have its own features. We can distinguish 2 types of features of speech sounds: Distinctive / Relevant, Non-distinctive / Irrelevant
1. Distinctive / Relevant:
Different articulatory and acoustic features of speech sounds which make them allophones of different phonemes. The minimal distinctive feature: the only distinctive feature in which two speech sounds differ.
2. Non-distinctive / Irrelevant
Phoneme The smallest unit of speech that helps to distinguish one word / word element from another: tap – tab – tag – tan ram – ran – rang sip – zip - A highly variable language unit - The number of phonemes is limited
|
Allophone A sound, a variant of a phoneme: let us – let them pat – spat – tap
- There exist more sounds in every language that we are able to perceive - The number of sounds is unlimited |
Different Opinions on the Nature of the Phoneme and its Definition
1. The basis for the difference: The phoneme has several aspects and functions
2. The phoneme is viewed:
- as a functional unit which serves to distinguish morphemes and words
- in psychological terms
- through physical definitions
3. Different linguistic schools suggest different conceptions
Mentalistic or Psychological Conception
- Originated by: Baudouin de Courtenay
- The phoneme: a psychical (ideal, mental) image of a sound What really exists is a perception of a sound
Abstractional Conception
- Originated by: Ferdinand de Saussure, L. Hjelmslev
- The phoneme: independent of the phonetic properties (that is acoustic and physiological properties)
Functional Conception
- Originated by: N.S. Trubetskoy, L. Bloomfield, R. Jakobson
- The phoneme: the minimal sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated. The features involved in the differentiation of words are called distinctive
Physical View on the Phoneme
- Originated by: D. Jоnes. Shared by: B. Bloch, G. Trager
- The phoneme: a "family" of sounds in a given language which are related in character and are used in such a way that no one member ever occurs in a word in the same phonetic context as any other member
L.V. Shcherba – The first to define the phoneme as a real independent distinctive unit which manifests itself in the form of allophones
V.A. Vassilyev developed Shcherba‘s theory and presented a detailed definition of the phoneme
The phoneme is the smallest language unit (sound type) that exists in the speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word
The phoneme is a dialectical unity of its three aspects reflected in its definition:
1) material, real and objective
2) abstractional and generalized
3) functional
These aspects are inseparably connected, they determine one another and are thus interdependent.
Functions of the Phoneme
1. Constitutive
2. Recognitive or Identificatory
3. Distinctive
dreamer [‘dri:mə] – dreamy [‘dri:mɪ]
[a:sks] – [a:skt]
[pen] – [ten]
It was cold. – It was gold.
14 . English consonants as units of the phonological system. The problem of affricates.
Sounds can function as units of language only if they differ from one another. Mutually distinctive speech sounds are called phonemes.
The phonological analysis of the system of English consonantal system helps to establish 24 phonemes.
Classificatory principles suggested by Russian phoneticians provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of consonants of the English language.
1. work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation
- voiceless (fortis) vs voiced (lenis): [p - b] pen - Ben
2. the active organs of speech and the place of articulation
- labial vs non-labial (lingual): pain - cane
- lingual vs glottal: Tim – him, care - hair
3. manner of the production of noise
- occlusive vs constrictive: pine - fine
- constrictive vs occlusive-constrictive: fare - chair
4. position of the soft palate
- oral vs nasal: sick - sing
5. the place of obstruction
- dental vs post-dental: θ - s
- alveolar vs non-alveolar: see – she
There exists the problem of the affricates. It’s difficult to decide on their number (How many phonemes of the same kind exist in English? Can such clusters as [tr], [dr], [ts], [dz], [tƟ], [dð] be considered as affricates?)
These sounds are complexes: articulatory and acoustically – 2 elements
The Number of Affricates in English
Traditionally we distinguish 2 affricates:[ʧ] and [ʤ] BUT
D. Jones: [ʧ ʤ], [ts dz] and [tr dr]
A.C. Gimson: [ʧ ʤ], [ts dz], [tr dr] and [tƟ], [dð]
Three rules to prove the articulatory indivisibility of affricates
N.S. Trubetskoy
Syllabic indivisibility: Belong to the same syllable: butcher, eighth, tree
Articulatory indivisibility: Produced by one articulatory effort
Duration: Should not exceed normal duration of either of their elements
Other Criteria
- Morphonological indivisibility
A sound complex is monophonemic if a morpheme boundary cannot pass within it:
eighth – 2 morphemes
- Commutability
The application of commutation test:
Monophonemic entities – they could be commutated with practically any consonant/vowel, e.g.:
[brɪʤ - brɪk - brɪŋ - brɪm] etc.
[baɪt - bɪt - bʌt - bɔ:t] etc.
- Native speakers’ intuition
15. English vowels as units of phonological system. The problem of diphthongs
Classificatory principles suggested by Russian phoneticians can be illustrated by distinctive oppositions in the system of the English vowel phonemes.
1. positions of the lips
- rounded vs unrounded: pot - part
2. position of the tongue
horizontal movement of the tongue
- front vs central: bed - bird
- back vs central: cart - curt
vertical movement of the tongue
- open vs mid-open: bard - bird
- close vs mid-open: bid - bird
3. degree of tenseness and the character of the end of the vowel
- tense vs lax: feed - fit
- checked vs free: done - darn
4. length
- long vs short: beet - bit
5. stability of articulation
- monophthongs vs diphthongs: cot - coat
- diphthongs vs diphthongoids: boat – boot
There exists the problem of diphthongs. It’s difficult to decide on their phonological status (Are these sounds monophonemic entities or biphonemic combinations?). These sounds are complexes: articulatory and acoustically – 2 elements
They could be commutated with practically any vowel: [bait - bit - bΛt - bo:t]
Other Criteria
- Morphonological indivisibility
A sound complex is monophonemic if a morpheme boundary cannot pass within it:
eighth – 2 morphemes
- Commutability
The application of commutation test:
Monophonemic entities – they could be commutated with practically any consonant/vowel, e.g.:
[brɪʤ - brɪk - brɪŋ - brɪm] etc.
[baɪt - bɪt - bʌt - bɔ:t] etc.
- Native speakers’ intuition
16. Phonemes and allophones. Types of allophones
The Definition of the Phoneme
The phoneme is the smallest language unit (sound type) that exists in the speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word
The phoneme is a dialectical unity of its three aspects reflected in its definition:
1) material, real and objective
2) abstractional and generalized
3) functional
These aspects are inseparably connected, they determine one another and are thus interdependent.
Functions of the Phoneme
1) Constitutive
2) Recognitive or Identificatory
3) Distinctive
The phoneme is realized in speech in the material form of speech sounds of different type. Various speech realizations of the phoneme are called its allophones. The difference between the allophones of the same phoneme is due to their position in various phonetic contexts.
Allophones: Variants of phonemes – Speech sounds which have one or more articulatory (and therefore acoustic) features in common and at the same time differ from each other in some degree are said to belong to one and the same phoneme
The occurrence of an allophone is determined by its position in the word (initial, medial, final) or by its phonetic environment
Distinctive features are present in all allophones of a phoneme
An allophone may have in addition to the invariant distinctive features one or more non-distinctive (irrelevant) features
/p/ 1) noise 2) occlusive, stop 3) (bi)labial 4) voiceless-fortis + aspiration
Types of Allophones |
|
principal (typical) |
subsidiary |
Free from the influence of neighbouring speech sounds and other phonetic factors (e.g. absence of stress). The phoneme in isolation
|
Most representative of the phoneme as a whole. The greatest number of articulatory features (distinctively relevant and irrelevant) |
The English /t/ Phoneme
Four articulatory features which are always present in all its allophones constituting its invariant: - noise - occlusive - forelingual - voiceless fortis
|
The definition of the principle variant of the phoneme: - noise - occlusive - plosive - forelingual - apical - alveolar - aspirated - voiceless fortis |
Subsidiary Variants of a Phoneme
Combinatory - due to the influence of neighbouring speech sounds (assimilation and adaptation / accommodation)
dental variants of the English forelingual phonemes /t d n l/ due to the assimilating influence of the following dental consonants [Ɵ ð], e.g. although
|
Positional - used in definite positions traditionally/ according to the orthoepic norms of the language
clear variant of the English phoneme /l/
|
17 . Patterns of Distribution of phonemes
1) Free variations
- The simplest pattern
- One and the same phoneme pronounced differently by one or different speakers (allophones)
- Interchangeable: [wɪʧ] – [ʍɪʧ]
2) Complementary distribution
- The allophones of the same phoneme
- Exclusive. Not interchangeable: [ten] – [tɔ:l]
3) Contrastive distribution
- Allophones of different phonemes
- Distinguish one word from another (minimal pairs): [bed] – [bæd]
4) Spoonerisms (W. Spooner)
- They may occur as mere slip of the tongue or jokes
- English people are especially greeting spoonerisms as hobby of teachers and students
17. Patterns of Distribution of phonemes
Distributional analysis
- The aim: to establish the distribution of speech sounds = all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of that language
1) Free variations
- The simplest pattern
- One and the same phoneme pronounced differently by one or different speakers (allophones)
- Interchangeable: [wɪʧ] – [ʍɪʧ]
2) Complementary distribution
- The allophones of the same phoneme
- Exclusive. Not interchangeable: [ten] – [tɔ:l]
3) Contrastive distribution
- Allophones of different phonemes
- Distinguish one word from another (minimal pairs): [bed] – [bæd]
4) Spoonerisms (W. Spooner)
- They may occur as mere slip of the tongue or jokes
- English people are especially greeting spoonerisms as hobby of teachers and students
Distinctive Oppositions and Their Types
Distinctive / Relevant: Different articulatory and acoustic features of speech sounds which make them allophones of different phonemes. The minimal distinctive feature: the only distinctive feature in which two speech sounds differ.
Non-distinctive / Irrelevant
= the oppositions of minimal pairs. A minimal pair is a pair of words that differ in meaning of one sound only: ten - pen
Phonological Oppositions
(based on the number of distinctive features):
Single: [ten] – [den]
1) voiceless fortis vs voiced lenis
Double: [pen] – [den]
1) voiceless fortis vs voiced lenis
2) labial (bilabial) vs lingual (forelingual)
Multiple: [bɪt] – [hɪt]
1) voiceless fortis vs voiced lenis
2) labial (bilabial) vs glottal
3) occlusive vs constrictive
18. Distinctive Oppositions and Their Types
= the oppositions of minimal pairs. A minimal pair is a pair of words that differ in meaning of one sound only: ten - pen
Phonological Oppositions
(based on the number of distinctive features):
Single: [ten] – [den]
1) voiceless fortis vs voiced lenis
Double: [pen] – [den]
1) voiceless fortis vs voiced lenis
2) labial (bilabial) vs lingual (forelingual)
Multiple: [bɪt] – [hɪt]
1) voiceless fortis vs voiced lenis
2) labial (bilabial) vs glottal
3) occlusive vs constrictive
19. Sound alternation
Sound alternations are the sound variations in words, their derivatives and grammatical forms of words.
It’s perfectly obvious that sound alternations are caused by assimilation, accommodation and reduction in speech. Alternations of consonants are mainly due to contextual assimilations: the dark [l] in “spell” alternation with the clear [l] in “spelling”. Vowel alternations are the result of the reduction in unstressed positions (combine [kombain] – [kəm`bain] where [ə] in the stressed syllable of the noun alternates with the neutral sound in the unstressed syllable of the verb).
To approach the matter from the phonological view point it’s important to differentiate phonemic and allophonic alternations. Some sound alternations are traced to the phonetic changes in earlier periods of the language development and are known as historical.
The sound changes which occurred in the process of historical development of the English Language are reflected in present day English as alternations of phonemes differentiating words, their derivatives and grammatical forms. The alternations are often supported by suffixation.
Vowel alternation:
1. Distinction of irregular verbal forms: [i: - e - e] mean – meant – meant
2. Distinction of causal verbal forms: [I - e] sit – set
3. Distinction of singular and plural forms of nouns: [æ - e] man – men
4. Distinction of parts of speech in etymologically correlated words: [aI - I] wise – wisdom
This type of alternation is often strengthened not only by suffixation but also by the shifting of stress like in: part – par`ticular
Consonant alternation:
1. Distinction of irregular verbal forms: [d - t] send – sent
2. Distinction of parts of speech in etymologically correlated words: [s - z] advice – advise
Vowel + Consonant alternation (often supported by suffixation and the shifting of stress):
[I - aI] + [v - f] live – life
20. Types of Transcription / Notation
Transcription is a set of symbols representing speech sounds. The symbolization of sounds naturally differs according to whether the aim is to indicate the phoneme or to reflect the modifications of its allophones as well.
Phonemic Broad - One symbol per one phoneme: symbols for all the phonemes of a language - Practical application
|
Allophonic Narrow - Ideally: one symbol per one allophone - Actually: symbols for phonemes + additional symbols for separate allophones ([ł]) or features of allophones - Theoretical application
|
Broad Transcription
Introduced by D. Jones Vowels: reduced the number of symbols to a minimum It isn’t necessary to introduce special symbols to differentiate the quality of these vowels.
|
First used by V.A. Vassilyev Vowels: provided special symbols for all vowel phonemes
|
21. The mechanism of articulatory transition of phonemes in connected speech
Sounds in actual speech are seldom pronounced by themselves. They are usually pronounced together with other sounds within single words and at the junction of words in phrases and sentences. But in order to pronounce a word consisting of more than one sound, a phrase or a sentence, it is necessary to join the sounds together in the proper way.
As a matter of fact, there exist several types of junction, some of which are common to all or many languages, while others are characteristic of individual languages.
In order to master these specific types of junction it is necessary to understand the mechanism of joining sounds together. This mechanism can only be understood after analyzing the stages in the articulation of a speech-sound pronounced in isolation.
They are:
Every speech-sound pronounced in isolation has three stages of articulation.
- The on-glide or the initial stage. The on-glide or beginning of a sound is the stage during which the organs of speech move away from a neutral position to take up the position necessary for the pronunciation of a consonant or a vowel. The on-glide produces no audible sound.
- The retention-stage or the medial stage. The retain-stage is the stage during which the organs of speech are kept for some time either in some position necessary to pronounce the sound (in the case of non-complex sounds) or move from one position to another (within complex sounds; such as diphthongoids, diphthongs and affricates)
- The off-glide (release) or the final stage. The off glide is the stage during which organs of speech move away to a neutral position.