Objective Complements or Objects

Objective complements are noun (or noun-equivalent) adjuncts of objective verbs denoting the object of the action or the subject. They are not attached to the verb only, but to any part of the sentence. E.g. Writing letters is a pleasure. There was no time to see her.

The objects are divided into prepositional and postpositionless, the latter into direct and indirect (as to their meaning and position in the sentence).

The direct object denotes something or somebody directly affected by the action of the verb while the indirect object (non-prepositional) denotes a person to whose benefit the action is performed or towards whom it is directed. E.g. He sent me a letter.

The indirect object is used only with a few verbs mostly conveying the idea of giving a person a thing and only in combination with the direct object, which as a rule follows the indirect object.

In the sentence “He sent me” “me” would be understood as a direct object (меня).

The prepositional objects with “to” and “for” are often grammatical synonyms of the indirect object.

In other words, the cognate object is a special kind of a non-prepositional object, which is always expressed by nouns of the same root or meaning with the governing verb. The verbs taking cognate objects are otherwise intransitive verbs. E.g. We live a happy life. She slept a sound sleep.

The cognate object occupies a place intermediate between an object and adverbial modifier expressing rather an adverbial than objective relation. E.g. He laughed a happy laugh = He laughed happily. The prepositional object is an object the relation of which to the governing word (a verb, an adjective, etc.) is expressed by means of various prepositions. E.g. You may rely on me in that matter. I don’t care for such people.

The object expressed by a complex is often called a complex object. E.g. I knew it to be nonsense.

The complex object is an object direct or prepositional consisting of two components of which the second stands in predicate relation to the first. The two components form an invisible syntactical unit, which is regarded as one part of the sentence. The complex object may be expressed only by a predicative construction (infinitive, participial, gerundial). E.g. He watched her enter the house. We are waiting for the rain to stop. Excuse John’s coming so late.

The object may be structural: I felt it (objective predicative) difficult to refuse (notional object).

Sometimes the difference between the object and the adverbial modifier is neutralized. E.g. They passed a mile in silence. She waited an hour. They appointed an hour.

32. The Attribute. The A is the part of the sent which modifyers Nouns in the sent. The A is Noun oriented. Attr-s are usually optional parts of the sent. Attr-s are classifyed into: Qualitative & Relatative. According to their pos-ion they may be: Prepositional & Postpositional. Their pos-n is determined by the form of their expression.

The Attribute

The most difficult question in the study of the attribute is its position in its general system of parts of the sentence. The question is this: is the attribute a secondary part of the sentence standing on the same level with the object and the adverbial modifier, or is it a unit of a lower rank?

Prof. Ilyish is in favor of the view that the attribute is a part of a phrase, rather than the sentence.

The attribute is a word or a group of words, which is an adjunct of a noun or substantivized part of speech. E.g. A voice inside, the man there, something to remind me of.

The attribute can be expressed by a noun, adjective, adverb, numeral, a verbal, a pronoun, etc. It can be prepositive or postpositive, depending on the morphological peculiarities or stylistic factors.

An attribute expressed by a prepositional phrase, an adverb is usually postpositive. Postpositive attributes are sometimes characteristic of official style of speech: Cf. Next Monday – Monday next, from times immemorial, those present semantically the attribute may be qualitative (deep sea), quantitative (many children), circumstantial (man there).

A variant of an attribute is the apposition – a noun placed at the side of another noun to characterize a person or thing the head word denotes by indicating the class or group to which this person or idea belongs: aunt Mary, Professor Brown, the city of New York, the battle of Moscow, a flower of a girl.

Sometimes transformational analysis helps to distinguish between the attribute and the apposition: woman doctor – a doctor that is woman; but child psychology – psychology that is … a child?!

The apposition may be a 1) close or 2) loose one.

1. Doctor Brown, 2) Leo Tostoy, the great Russian writer.

1. A close apposition enters into such close relations with its head noun that they form a group with one stress. The head noun is often a proper noun, the name of a person; the apposition denotes rank, profession, relationship, etc. E.g. Doctor Watson, Major Smith, Peter the Great.

2. A loose apposition follows the head word and has the force of a descriptive attribute. E.g. He is a good boy, your cousin Val.

ATTRIBUTE

1. Adjectives (a) or adjectival phrases (b) which characterize the person or non-person qualities or express the speaker's attitude. a) We sat on the soft sofa and... well, just sat there. b) We sat there, unable to move or say a word.

2. Pronouns or pronominal phrases, which help to identify or define a person/ non-person. Can you see those children of mine anywhere?

3. Numerals (ordinal or cardinal), which state the number or order, or serve to identify persons/ things. He was my first man.

It is part two of the book. 4. Nouns in the common case singular (a) or prepositional nominal phrases (b)=> quality or locative/ temporal/ etc features of a person/ thing. a)We did it at the garden wall. It was rough. b)He was a man of strange habits

5. Nouns or pronouns in genitive case. His girlfriend's bottom is his pride, joy and personal source of enjoyment.

6. Statives (though rarely)

No man alive would eat your cooking.

7. Participle I (a), II (b) and participial phrases (c) -> characterise a person/thing through an action/ process/ reaction. a) He laughed at the crying girl. Bastard. b) I couldn 't help laughing when I saw his shaved face. c) I glanced at the man knitting by the window.

8.Gerunds (a), gerundial phrases (b), gerundial complexes (c) => usually characterize things from the point of view of their function/ purpose. a) Her walking shoes were elegant and the singing teacher envied her desperately. b) He showed no sign of having ever known me. Jerk. c) There is no chance of our seeing him again. He left for Leipzig.

9 Infinitives (a), infinitive phrases (b), infinitive complexes (c) => characterize through a real/ unreal action. a) You are the one to blame. b) He is not a man to experiment with sex. c)This is a problem for you to solve

10.Adverbs (a), adverbial phrases (b), a) The then president sucked, b) If you live in an out of the way place -I'm sorry.

11. Sentences used as a whole (so called "quotation nouns). She looked at him with a kind of don't-touch-me or- I’ll-slap you air and he risked.

12. Attribute clauses I loved the boy who loved boys.

33. The adverbial modifier.The AM is a part of the sent which is sentact-ly related to the pred & modifyers the action or the state expressed by the pred. AM are dev-d into 2 main groups according to their sem distance to the meaning of the verb. 1)Those which expr the inner char-ristic of the action (of manner & degree); 2) Those which expr the outer char of the act (of place, time, att circumstances, cause, comparison, result, purpose).

Adverbial Complements (or modifiers)

Adverbial Complements are adjuncts of verbs and convey qualitative, quantitative or circumstantial characteristics of the action denoted by the verb. E.g. He said it in disgust. The adverbials denote either external relations (of time, place, reason, purpose, etc) or inner qualities of the actions (manner, degree, etc) and are more independent of the verb than the object.

The position of the object especially that of a direct or indirect object is fixed; adverbial modifiers, especially adverbials of external relations are relatively free as to their position in the sentence. E.g. I met a friend (1) of mine on the way (2) to the university (and vise versa 2-1). It is not always easy to draw hard and fast lines between the secondary parts of the sentence, especially when they are expressed by prepositional phrases. It is noteworthy that the choice of the preposition before a prepositional object depends on the verb; the choice of the preposition before an adverbial modifier does not. E.g. Fleur went up to her room (adv. mod.) and sat in the dark (adv. mod.). Mrs. Brook pondered on the delay (object).

According to their meaning adverbial modifiers may be classified as follows:

1. Of place: Outside it was getting dark.

2. Of time: Martin talked for 15 minutes with him.

3. Of manner or attending circumstances: She walked briskly.

4. Of degree: I was completely happy.

5. Of cause: I flushed simply from being spoken to.

6. Of purpose: She stopped for a moment to ease her back.

7. Of result: Ben was too busy to hear him.

8. Of condition: In case of your absence I shall leave you a note.

9. Of concession: She laughed in spite of her…

An adverbial modifier may be expressed by an adverb, a noun with a preposition, a participle, a gerund with a preposition, an infinitive, a whole syntactical word combination.

The complex adverbial modifier is an adverbial modifier, which consists of 2 components, the second component being in predicate relation to the first one. The 2 components form an invisible syntactical unit, which is regarded as a part of the sentence. The complex adverbial modifier may be expressed by an infinitive (very frequent), participial or gerundial constructions. E.g. It was too chilly for him to stay here. How didi you get out without his seeing you. It being now pretty late, we went home.

ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

1. Adverbs. You sing beautifully. And I often lie.

2. Adverbial phrases. It happened three months ago and lasted for three minutes.

3. A noun/ pronoun/ numeral preceded by a preposition. Behind him stood a horse. It happened in 2004. There: was her lover unde,

4. A noun or this/ that/every/last/next* a noun Wait a minute! Come this way, please.

5.Non-finite forms: Gerund: I eat before going to bed. Infinitive: I come here to make love to you. Participle: Walking in the garden, we found a very comfortable wall.

6.Predicative complexes: Gerundial constructions: Are you angry because of my being late? Absolute constructions: The meal over, we began drinking. (non-prepositional ) You mustn't do it with children watching, (prepositional)

7. A conjunction + adjective: I do it if necessary. noun: As a little girl she went to the forest. participle: When argued with, I get irritated. While doing it I got tired. infinitive: As if to calm him down, she gave him some pills.

8. Clauses Won 't you stay forever or at least till the rain stops? I stayed with him because he asked me. I'm very kind.

34. The phrase is a group of 2 or more []cally related notional words within the structure of the [], based on the gram-cal relations bw its components which itself is not a [].

The main object of study in syntax is the communicative unit of the language, the sentence. The phrase is the syntactic unit used as a notional part of a sentence. As a level-forming unit, it is characterized by some common and some differential features with the unit of the lower level, the word, and the unit of the upper level, the sentence. Like the word, the phrase is a nominative unit, but it provides a complex nomination of the referent, a polynomination consisting of several (at least two) nominative components, presenting the referent as a complicated phenomenon, cf.: a girl – a beautiful girl; a decision – his unexpected decision; etc. Moreover, the regular free phrase does not enter speech as a ready-made unit like the word; it is freely formed in speech, like the sentence according to a certain grammatical pattern. As for the fixed word-combinations, idioms, they are closer to the word in the type of nomination: they are ready-made units fixed in dictionaries and studied mainly by lexicology.

The basic difference between the phrase and the sentence is as follows: the phrase cannot express full predication, even if it denotes a situation; this becomes obvious in their mutual transformations, for example, in the so-called phrasalization, or nominalization of the sentence, cf.: They considered the problem. – their consideration of the problem.

The [] is a unit of communication, PH – not. It names an event or a situation of reality, used with some com-ive aim. There are many PH which are equivalent to Ws (an unmarried man – bachelor)

On the other hand there is some correlation bw PH & [], Many PH are derived from []s and they are equivalent to them in their nom-ive funct. (The president’s arrival = the president arrived)

Lexicology studies the meaning of the W in the structure of the PH & ways to modify this ,meaning (green leaves- years, party).

Grammar deals with the classification of PHs on diffnt gram principles, gm-cal means of combining Ws into PHs

CLASSIFICATIONS:

• Structural/ formal: is based on the absence/ presence of a head W (run quickly, step by step) the PHs with a head W are called either headed or endocentric. The 2d type – non-headed/ exocentric.

• Semantic (on the semantics of the head W which serves to unit Ws derived from the same root (to love books, love 4 books, a book lover)

• - morphological classification: on the belonging of a head W in an endocentric PH / the components of the exocentric PH to a certain parts of speech (there are noun phrases (NP), e.g.: a beautiful girl; men, women and children; verbal phrases (VP), e.g.: went home; came and went; adjective phrases (AP), e.g.: quite unexpected; nice and quiet; adverbial phrases (DP), e.g.: quite unexpectedly.)

• Derivational cl: on the derive-al history of the PH (primary/ non-deriv & secondary/ derivational) Secondary PH – those that are derived from []. They are results of transformation over []s. (a new house - the h is new)/

• (Barhudarov)Syntactic (on the bases od syntactic relations – coordination, subordination& predication): coordinate PH ( ladies & gentlemen; ) furth into – syndetic (made up with the help of conjunctions) & a~ (old stone houses), subordinate (cold water –furth on the morphological principle into nominal, verbal, adj-val, on quantitative pr into – simple & comlex (very cold water), on distributional pr into – continuous (say sadly) & dis~ (said Sybil saidly)) & predicative (gerundial, infinitival, participial PH )

• The Sec PHs are derived from [] by means of the semantic process which is called NOMINALIZATION – a process of changing a [] into a form that can appear in the position of a nominal predicate in another [] (He is ill – an ill person/ his illness/ his being ill)

• Eng has tendency towards N, N-tion plays a very imp role in the gram-cal structure of Eng. It serves as a means of compression in Eng. It enriches the synonymic potential of the lge(gerundial, infinitival, participial PH serve as functional synonyms of the corresponding (cl)).

N fulfills a compensating funct in the lge: very often when where is no noun-derivative from a verb or an adj; when there is a gap in the lexical paradigm of nomination, a gerundial or Inf PH is used to fill in the gap. (she often complains of being busy)

N is a means of enriching a Voc of the lge. Many compound Ns are traceable back to []s, i.e. can be trated as results of N (a long liver – a person who)

35. The phrase is a group of 2 or more []cally related notional words within the structure of the [], based on the gram-cal relations bw its components which itself is not a [].

One problem concerning the phrase is the absence of a universal term. Before the 20th century the word “phrase” was used to denote this linguistic phenomenon, however, it was dismissed by H. Sweet who considered it too vague.

There appeared new terms, such as “word group” and “word cluster”. Later L. Bloomfield restored the past status of “phrase”, and currently this term is widely used by American linguists. Another problem is connected with the definition of the phrase. Despite the fact that the phrase, along with the sentence, is a basic unit of syntax, there is no universally accepted definition of the phrase. Some scholars define the phrase as a combination of at least two notional words which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected. However, the majority of Western linguists and

Russian researchers Prof. B. Ilyish and V. Burlakova believe that a combination of a notional word with a functional word can be treated as a phrase as well, that is they term “phrase” every combination of two or more words, which is a

grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word. The problem is disputable since the role of functional words is to denote some abstract relations and they are devoid of nominative power. On the other hand, such combinations

are syntactically bound and they should belong somewhere. We shall adhere to the view supported by B. Ilyish and V. Burlakova. Despite all the controversies regarding the essence and nature of the phrase, the most adequate interpretation seems to be as follows: the phrase is any syntactically organized group including either notional words (happy life, very

nice, to ignore the comment), or both notional and functional words (on the table, in the bag, under the tree) connected with any of the existent types of syntactic connection. The phrase is a linear language unit that can be either a part of the

sentence, or a separate sentence thus acquiring not only intonation coloring and corresponding phrase stress, but also communicative orientation. Thus, the phrase can be defined as a syntactically organized group of words of any

morphological composition based on any type of syntactic connection. The difference between the phrase and the sentence is fundamental: the phrase is a nominative unit which fulfils the function of polynomination denoting a

complex referent (phenomenon of reality) analyzable into its component elements together with various relations between them; the sentence is a unit of predication which, naming a certain situational event, shows the relation of the denoted event towards reality.

General characteristics of the phrase are:

1) A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a word is. As a naming unit it differs from a compound word because the number of constituents in a word-group corresponds to the number of different denotates (a

black bird – a blackbird; a loud speaker – a loudspeaker).

2) Each component of the word-group can undergo grammatical changes without destroying the identity of the whole unit: to see a house - to see houses –

saw houses (grammatical modifications of one phrase). A sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form. A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence.

3) A word-group is a dependent syntactic unit, it is not a communicative unit and has no intonation of its own. Intonation is one of the most important features of a sentence, which distinguishes it from a phrase. The correlation of the phrase and the sentence is a bit different from that of other language units. Usually, the sentence is considered a unit of the level higher than the phrase. However, according to some scholars, eg. Yu. S. Maslov, the phrase can be a sentence or a part of a sentence while the sentence can be realized as a phrase, a group of interconnected phrases and a separate word.

• The Sec PHs are derived from [] by means of the semantic process which is called NOMINALIZATION – a process of changing a [] into a form that can appear in the position of a nominal predicate in another [] (He is ill – an ill person/ his illness/ his being ill)

• Eng has tendency towards N, N-tion plays a very imp role in the gram-cal structure of Eng. It serves as a means of compression in Eng. It enriches the synonymic potential of the lge(gerundial, infinitival, participial PH serve as functional synonyms of the corresponding (cl)).

N fulfills a compensating funct in the lge: very often when where is no noun-derivative from a verb or an adj; when there is a gap in the lexical paradigm of nomination, a gerundial or Inf PH is used to fill in the gap. (she often complains of being busy)

N is a means of enriching a Voc of the lge. Many compound Ns are traceable back to []s, i.e. can be trated as results of N (a long liver – a person who)

36. In the process of building a PH the components of a PH are not just put together, but the relations bw them are based on certain types of gr-cal means of a particular lge. There are 4 gr-cal means of expr syntactic relations bw the components: agreement, government, adjoining & connection (with the help of funct W). In inflectional lges the most impor role is played by agreement and government. In the case of AGREEMENT the subordinated Whas the same gr-cal forms as the sub-ting W(белая чашка), in the case of GOVERNMENT the form of a subordinated W is not the same as of the subbordinating W (читать книгу)

The sphere of agreement in Modern English is extremely small: it is found in the demonstrative pronouns this and that, which agree in number with their head word (that chair – those chairs).. Government can be observed between the verb and its object expressed either by a personal pronoun or by the pronoun who, the verb being the governing element (to rely on him, to be proud of her).

The loss of significance of of agreement and Gov as rgam-cal means was the result of the loss of inflections. There exist some special means of expressing syntactic relations within a phrase: adjoining & connection. They become the leading gr-cal means of expr synt relations in Eng. In Russian Adjoinment is described as absence both of agreement and of government, in Eng the essence of adjoining consists in the position of the subordinate W (preposition or post~)and related to the fixed W-order.

While adjoinment is typical of Russian, enclosure is peculiar to Modern English, it is one variety of adj. By enclosure (замыкание) some element is put between the two parts of another constituent of a phrase. It is, as it were, enclosed between two parts of another element. The most widely used type of enclosure is use of an attribute between the article (determiner) and the head-noun (a pretty face, your perfect man, one good essay). Many words other than adjectives and nouns can be found in that position. The then president — here the adverb then, being enclosed between the article and the noun it belongs to, is in this way shown to be an attribute to the noun. In the phrase a go-to-devil expression the phrase goto- devil is enclosed between the article and the noun to which the article belongs, and this characterises the syntactic connections of the phrase.

Connection i.e. the expr of syntactic relations with the help of functional words). Its importance also grew after the loss of inflections. In Eng prepositions serve as main markers of the semantic role of the W (to write with a pen, to live in N). As prpositions came to replace the morphological markers of case, i.e. morph-cal government, we can speak about prepositional G (esp in the case of the so-called verbs with inherent prepositions( look at, remind of) Connect & Adj are interrelated as the use of a preposition is related to the position of components within the PH.

37. the Compound sent is a composite sent built on the princ of coordination. Coord-ion can be expr-d either syndetically or assyndet-ly.

The main sem relations b/w the clauses connected coordinatively are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causal, consequential, resultative. The base sentences joined into one Comp sent lose their independent status & become coordinate clauses- parts of a composite unity.

The main coordinating conj are: and, but, or, nor, neither, for, either..or,.

The semi-compound sent is a semi-composite sent built up on the princ of coordination. The str-re of this sent is traced back to minimum two-based sent-s having an identical el-t belonging to one or both of their princ syntactic positions.

The most important & widely used is the conj 'and'.