21. Syntax is a part of gr which studies ways of arranging words into sentences to produce speech. The main units of the Syntactic level are: the word in it's position in the sent, word phrases, the simple sent, the composite sent, the text. Being the central unit of Synt the simple S has been in the focus of lingv attention. The problem of its definiton like that of the word appears to be quite complicated. There are a lot of definitions of the simple sent.

The cause of this variety of definitions lies in the fact that the S.S is a many sided phenomenon and can be defined and studied from several aspects. It's main aspects are: the form which deals with the problem how the Sent is built, the meaning which tells us what the Sent is about, the function which is correlated with the question what for the sent is uttered.

The definition and the understanding of the sent depend on: the view-point of the lingv( the school a lingv belongs to) , the aspect of the sent which is in the focus of the linguist's attention. From the communicative p v the sent is defined as the minimum unit of communication and each sent is pronounced with the certain comm aim either to make a statement, requests, to ask for information.

Studied from the formal (structural p v ) the sent is defined as a group of worlds based on predicative relations. S=NP+VP.

From the p of view of it's meaning the sent is defined as an expression of a complete thought about an event of reality. Perhaps the best definition would be that embraces all the three aspects. Another problem is it's level belonging, ie whether it is a unit of the langv or a unit of speech or both. Unlike words sent-s don't exist in the langv as readymade units.

Each time sent-s are created anew by the speaker in the act of communication. Yet, each sent as an act of com-n has at its basis a certain syntactic str-re which exists in the langv and consequently in the speakers lingv competence. And from this aspect the sent presents a unit of the langv.

Thus, the sent must be treated as a unit of the langv which because actualized in speech. And thus actualized sent has an aim of it's own, it's called an utterence.

The utterence as a unit of sp is much wider in its char-ristics than the sent taken isolotedly from the situational context.

Ex: the sent: It' cold. in different situational context may be actualized differently and produce at least 3 utterences: a mear statement, a question, an implicite request.

The main categories of the sent are: predicat-ty, modality, negation. There are as many definitions of predicat-ty as of the sent. The most widely accepted is: Pred-ty is the category which establishes the relations b/w the nominative contence of the sent & reality.

We stated that to become an utterence the sent must be actualized, ie related to a concrete situation of reality. To do so we must place the event, named in the sent in time, present it as real, unreal or desirable & relate it to the doer of the action or the carier of the state.

Pred-ty involves establishing subj-predicate relations which in it's term is accomplished by the Gr categories of tence, mood, persone. These 3 cat-ries are necessary for establishing predicative relations.

Thus we may conclude that the cat of pred-ty has a morpho-syntactic nature.

The expression of pred-ty in the sent is called predication.

Scholars deffirentiate b/w primary : secondary pred-ion & b/w explisite : implisite pred-n. Primary pred-ion establishes subj-predic relations and is expressed by the finite form of the verb.

Secondary pred-ion is contained in gerundial, infinitivial, participial constructions, absolute constr-ns, detached parts of the sent which name the event but don't place it in time.

Structures of sec-ry pred-ion cannot function as autonomous sent-s, & they are related to the obj reality only through the main (primary) pred-n.

Sent-s with structures of secondary pred-ion are not simple because they name two events of reality. Such sent-s are semi-composite or semi-complex.

In sent-s with primary & secondary pred-ion we deal with explicite pred-ion. Primary - finite, secondary – non-finite

Besides explicite pred-ion there exist the so-called emplicite pred-ion. We come across it in sent-s which are stucturelly simple. And yet, thay name not one but two situations of reality. This is usually found in sent-s which contain event-nouns.

Ex: I was late because of the rain.

In fact not only event-nouns but any noun in the str-re of the text & even a personal pronoun may function as an event-noun & thus express impicite pred-ion.

Predicativity – a category which refers the nominative contents of the sentence to reality.

Primary predication – establishes subject-predicate relations & makes the backbone of the sentence. It is expressed by the finite form of the verb. E.g. Cranes are flying.

Secondary predication – is contained in gerundial, infinitival, participial constructions, detached parts of the sentence. Such structures name an event but do not place it in time, e.g. I saw cranes + The cranes were flying= I saw cranes flying. These sentences are semicomposite by their structure.

Explicit predication – predication expressed by the finite forms of the verb & by the structures of secondary predication.

Implicit predication – is contained in sentences which are structurally simple & yet name not one but two events of reality (in sentences with event-nouns). E.g. I was late because of the rain (my dog/my wife/my bus, etc). (1)I was late; 2) It rained/There was rain).

22. Modality - is a very copatious & complicated cat-ry. Usually it's devided into two types: objective (primary), subjective (secondary).

Obj M express the relation of the contence of the sent to reality as stated or established by the speaker, ie it shows whether the speaker presents the action as real, unreal or hypothetic. It's expressed by the Gr cat of the mood. & thus, it is a component of pred-ty. It's always expressed explicitely in the sent. No primary mod-ty - no sent.

Subj. M consists of two layers:

• It expressed the relations b/w the subj of the sent & the action, ie it shows whether the speaker presents the action as necessary, obligatory, permissive for the subj. It's also called the action mod-ty. It's expressed by the modal verbs in their predic-oriented meanings (necessary, ability, possibility...).

• Expresses the speakers evaluation of the action from the p of view of it's truth.

This type of m-ty is called EPISTEMIC or belief mod-ty. It has difr means of expression in the langv. it can be expr-d by modal words which expr diffr degrees of certainty.

Modal verbs in their sent-oriented meanings (doubt, suppos-ion, disbelieve, certainty). Ex: He may've left.

Modalized verbs (seem, appear); performative verbs (v of speech & mental act-ty: think, believe, suppose); sintact structures (tag-qu); intonation; smtimes by word-order.

M-ty is a culture sensitive cat-ry. The specific feature of E is the abundance & the frequent use of various means to express subj mod-ty. Which make the speech less assertive and more polite. It is in absolute accordance with the principle of politeness char-ristic of British speech-eticet. Thus principle includes 3 main components: don't impose your oppinion, give options, make the hearer feel good, be friendly.

Smtimes means of expressing subj mod-ty may be piled in one sent especially if the speaker says smth not very pleasant. Ex: I don't wish to seam spiteful but I'm afraid I don't think she can've been a very nice woman.

The Russian langv as compared to E appears to be more direct and more categoric and this diffr must be taken into consider-n in learning, teaching & interpriting.

Mod-ty is also a gender-sensitive cat-ry and there are obvious diffr-ces b/w men's & woman's speech in the use of modal means. Typical female speech usually lacks the assertiveness of men's speech & it's often pointed out that woman use more means of expr-ing subj mod-ty which make their sp more tentative & less assertive. Thus, where a man says: "This is better!" she might say: "This is better, isn't it?"

Modality – a functional-semantic category which expresses different types of the relations between the utterance & reality as well as different types of subjective evaluation of the information contained in the utterance.

Modus – the part of the utterance which presents the speaker’s evaluation of the expressed information. Dictum – the part of the utterance which presents information. E.g. I think (m) he’s gonna be late (d).

Primary modality – expresses the relation of the contents of the sentence to reality as established by speaker who, choosing the appropriate form of the mood, presents the event as real, unreal or desirable. It’s expressed by the grammatical form of the mood & thus it is a component of predicativity & as such it always finds a grammatical expression in the sentence. E.g. U’re my wife/Be my wife/I wish U were my wife. => PM is an obligatory feature of the sentence.

Secondary modality – action modality (expresses the relations between the subject of the sentence & the action. The action may be presented as possible, permissive, obligatory, necessary, desirable or unnecessary for the subject. It’s expressed by the MVs in their predicate-oriented menings. E.g. Children must be seen but not heard. U may be free for today. I can jump puddles.) & epistemic modality (expresses the attitude of the speaker to the contents of the utterance or the speaker’s evaluation of the likelihood of the event presented in the utterance. EM is expressed by: MVs, modal adverbs & modal particles – maybe, perhaps, evidently, etc.; modilized verbs seem, appear, happen, chance; MVs in sentence-oriented meaning of probability, doubt, supposition, certainty, disbelief; tags It’s true, isn’t it; so called performative verbs & phrases which name speech & mental acts think, suppose, guess, doubt, be certain, be sure- I guess U’re right/I’m afraid U’re wrong.)

23. NEGATION. N-ion is sentential cat-ry by means of which a speaker expresses if the event takes or doesn't take place. It is a component of a larger category called polarity. It's also closely connected to the c-ry of mod-ty.

According to its scope negation may be complete & partial. In the case of sentential (compl) negation the whole proposition is negated. In the case of partial neg-ion an element of proposition is negated. Ex: no one understood his jokes.-Some people didn't und his jokes.

Neg-ion may also be differentiated into: gram & lex.

The gr means of neg-ion include: the negative particle "not" (with verbs); the negative pronouns & adverbs (no one, never, ); the negative conj (neither, nor).

Lex means of neg-ion include: fail, refuse, deny, mind ; neg-ion is also expr-d with the help of : un-, ir-, -less, = without. Ex: helpless.

There is explisite & implisite neg-ion.

Impl n-ion is contained in sent-s with hardly, scarcely, too, but for.

Neg-ion in E has some spec features diffr from Russ:

-E sent-s are gr-ly mononegative , R sent-s are polynegative.

-In E the negator tends to be placed in the modal part of the utterance which makes the sent less assertive. Ex: I don't think he'll come.

-The 2^nd part of a tag-qu. The response to the utterance depend on whether the preceding str-re is affirmative or negative.

These points require spec attention in teaching E because the interference of the mothertongue may be very strong.

Negation – the sentential category which shows that the relations established by the components of the sentence do not exist in reality, from the speaker’s point of view. Usually appear in speech as a reaction to an affirmative sentence. The part of proposition which falls under the scope of negation is referred to as the sphere of negation. 1) ES-s are mononegative, whereas Rus – polynegative; 2) ES – tends to place the negator in the modal part of the utterance (for less assertiveness – I don’t suppose U’d want to dive up waiting at tables?); 3) The second part of the utterance depend on the affirmative/negative character of the previous remark. 2^nd part is affirmative – tag is negative; the basic part is negative – the tag is affirmative.

24. The structural asp of the sent deals with the formal organization of the sent. It reveals the mechanisms of deriving, modifying sent-s & of classifying sent-s according to their str-re.

Classification of sentences based on their structure. The simple sentence. The composite sentence.

Structurally sentences are divided into:1) simple (contains only 1 subject-predicate unit) or composite (more than one), 2) complete or incomplete (elliptical)-distinguished by the presence or absence of word-forms in the principal positions of 2-member sentences, 3) two-member (two principal parts-the subject and the predicate) or one- member (1 principal part which is either subject, or the predicate). These 3 classifications are based on different approaches to the structural organization of sentence & reflect its different aspects.

The simple sentence. 1) Two-member sentences. The basic pattern is one subject-predicate unit. Thus it has 2 main positions: those of the subject and the predicate. There are several variations of this pattern-depend on the kind of the verb occupying the predicate position. This verb may be transitive, in~, ditransitive or a link verb. Sentences may be unextended (John is clever) and extended (John learned French). A sentence may be extended, not only by obligatory elements but also by optional ones (attributes, certain kinds of prepositional objects, adverbial modifiers) ~John ran quickly to me.

2) One-member sentences: a) nominal b) verbal. Nominal-the principal part is expressed by a noun, they state the existence of the things. They are typical of descriptions and may be unextended (Silence. Midnight) &extended (English spring flowers!). Verbal-the principal part expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, infinitive or gerund. Mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality. (To think of that! Living at the mercy of a woman!).

The composite sentence is a sentence consisting of 2 or more clauses. In its structure a clause is similar to a simple sentence, but unlike a simple sentence it forms part of a bigger syntactical unit. Clauses may be joined by means of coordination (a compound sentence-The door opened & 2 men came in) or subordination (a complex sentence ~ I have come to u, because I know that u can help me). Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank. Subordination makes one of them dependent upon the other. A compound sentence may contain coordination, clauses extended by subordinate clauses - a compound-complex sentence. (Pooh was very proud when he heard this and Piglet noticed it at once). A complex sentence may contain subordinate clauses joined by means of coordination - a complex sentence with homogeneous subordinate clauses (I know that he has come and that he is out of money).

Depending on the number of components simple sent are divided into: unextended, & extended.

The simple unext-d sent was trad-ly used as the main instrument of syntactic analises. However if we look more carefully at some of simple unext sent we will see that some of them are ungrammatical (unmarked) because they are sem-ly incomplete (meaningless). Ex: He took.

These sent are meaningless 'cause the valency of the verb has not been realized & the meaning of the verb has not been exposed.

Valency is the ability of the V to combine with other parts of the sent for the V to realize its lex meaning & to become the sem-tic & structural center of the sent.

It's necessary to differentiate b/w the Olig-ty valency & oblig parts of the sent & opt. modality & optional parts of the sent which give additional inform. Ex: The little boy put his big bag on the kitchen table.

Attributes may be both: Optional & Oblig depending on the type of the sent. In the pres gr these terms have been replaced by The elementary sent. The minimum str-re which include the predic-te, the subject, & the oblig-ry parts is called The structural minimum. The sent based on the str-ral scheme is called the Elementary sent & it serves as the instrument of syntact anal.

A set of str schemes makes the syntactic basis of the langv. The most typical str-ral schemes of the sent in E are: N+intransV (the train arrived); N+transV+DO(I like apples) ; N+trV+indObj+DO(He gave me a book ) ;N+intrV+AM of manner(She behaved like an angel);

N+trV+DO+Ammanner(He treated as royally)

28. The structural minimum/ structural scheme of the sentence – is the minimum structure of the sentence which includes the predicate & the obligatory parts of the sentence; belongs to the level of language. The sentence which is based on this structural scheme is called elementary sentence & serves as the instrument of syntactic analysis.

Structural schemes Elementary sentences

Subject – predicate expressed by a verb of nondirected action (Active Voice) Pages rustle.

Subject – predicate expressed by a verb of nonprepositional- object directivity (Active Voice) – direct object Моr was enjoying the port.

Subject – predicate expressed by a verb requiring two non-prepositional objects: object of addressee and object of patient (Active voice) – non-prepositional object of addressee – non-prepositional object of patient 'I've taught him that.'

Subject – predicate expressed by a verb of spatial directivity (Active Voice) – adverbial modifier of place

The Judge is in the chair.

Subject – predicate expressed by a verb of temporal directivity (Active Voice) – adverbial modifier of time

That was long ago.

Subject – predicate expressed by a verb of nonprepositional object directivity (Passive Voice)

They had been seized.

There are several processes of ext & compres the elementary []

2. Extention it consists in adding to a part of a sent a unite of the same syntact status. As the result we have sent-s with homogenious parts. Ex: He waited and waited.

3. Expension consists in modifying one part of the sent by another subbordinated to it. It results in the formation of subj, pred, obj, & AM groups. Ex: The Moscow train always arrives at this little station at 5 sharp.

4. Compounding consists in changing a part of the sent and namelly the predicate from simple to compound. The pred may be compounded by the introduction of a modal or an aspective component or by both at a time. Ex: It must've been a suicide.

5. Conformation results in the formation of double pred-t in which the verb fulfills a double funct that of a notional V & that of a link-V. Ex: He stood invisible. This phenom-n is called syncretism- the ability of V to carry out 2 or more functions at a time. Another case of synr-zm is when a V combines a funct of auxiliary & link-V. Ex: She was fat & smooth & guilty smiling.

6. Detachment consists in accentuating a part of a sent & is achieved by a pause in oral sp & by commas and dashes in writing. Ex: She spoke to him- solid, reach, handsome- man. Parcellation is when a detached part is sepparated from the wrest of the sent by "." and forms a separate syntact str-re. Ex: Go on. But without lights.

The processes of compressing of El sent include:

1. Substitution consists in replacing a part or a whole sent by a word substitute. The most frequent substitutes are: it, this, one, so, do, thing, this way, stuff.

2. Representation. – is the use of a part of syntactic unit or a part of a grammatical form to represent the whole form. Finally I got divorced. – U always wanted to.

3. Ellipsis consists in deleting from a sent one or more part which are redundant from the inform pv. The delited parts can be easily restored either from the previous context or from analogues str-res which exist in the langv ie in the speaker's & hearer's competence.

According to the source of their restoration El sent may be: sentagm-ly restored (from the context) , paradigmal-ly rest-d (on the basis of lingv competence).

Subst-ion, repr-ion, ellipsis manifest the principle of economy.

The structural minimum/ structural scheme of the sentence – is the minimum structure of the sentence which includes the predicate & the obligatory parts of the sentence; belongs to the level of language. The sentence which is based on this structural scheme is called elementary sentence & serves as the instrument of syntactic analysis.

26. The central notion of the sem asp of the sent is that of a sem(deep) str-re of the sent. The sent is treated as a lingv sign & it possesses form, denotation, signification.

The denotatum of a word is an obj or a phenomenon of reality . The significatum is a concept of this object in our mind.

Sem analisis of several sent-s: The student was writing his project. The professor will reexamine `us tomorrow. My Granny didn't finish her knitting.

These sent-s are absolutely diffr but yet they share certain inform-ion,ie they name an action & its 2 participants: agent & obj. This inform-ion constitutes the sem str-re of the sent ie it is the generalised meaning of the sent.

The components of the sem str-re are Actants/deep cases/sem arguments, sem roles

Today the sem str-re is understood as the plot of the abstract plan of the sent or the interface b/w the mental dictionary & the lex-gram str-re.

Classification of sem types of the sent-s:

1. Chafe (based on the sem types of the predicate):

• Statal sent-s. It's cold.

• Process sent-s. It was raining.

• Action sent-s. He cleans his teeth.

2. Arutyunova (based on the logical types of situations reflected in the sent):

• S of nomination (smth happened somewhere)

• S of existence. There lived a girl.

• S of char-zation. He is a good boy.

• S of identif-ion. You are the boy who wanted to talk with me?

So, we see that each sent can be analyzed from the syntact & sem pv.

The relations b/w the syntact & sem str-res may be of 2 kinds: semetrical & assemetrical. There's a fundamental parallelism b/w the parts of the sent and their sem functions in the sent which is reflected in the primary sem funct-s of the parts of the sent.

Ex: the primary sem funct of the subj is Agent.

-----@@@@@@------ of the obj is Object.

-----@@@@@@------of the pred-t is Action.

So, the fundam parallelism b/w the syntact & sem str-res of the sent is often broken & as everywhere in the langv cases of assimetry are more frequent then cases of semetry. The assim-ry b/w sem & syntact str-res of the sent may find various manifestations. Some of them are:

1. Not all sem arguments may be presented in the surface str-re of the sent. ex: In agentless passive sent the agent is not presented in the surface str-re. Ex: I've been made to feel more welcome.

2. Some parts of the sent may be sem-ly empty. Ex: It's snowing.

3. One and the same part of the sent may carry out several sem functions.

4. One and the same sem function may be expressed by diffr parts of the sent. Ex:She smilled sadly.-- She smiled a sad smile.

5. Sent-s may have diffr syntact but identical sem str-res, ie sent may be close in meaning. Ex: He was a good story teller.-- He told stories well. These sent-s are syntactic synonyms.

Sent may have identic synt str-res but diffr sem str-res. They are syntact homonims. Ex: He's eager to please.-- He's easy to please.

27. The communicative aspect of the sentence.

.classification of the sentences according to the aim of communication.

From the point of view of its role in its course the sentence is defined as a minimum unit of communication. Each sentence is uttered with a certain communicative aim either to present some information or to ask for it or to induce the listener to some action. According to the communicative aim sentences r devided into 3 types:declarative,interrogative and imperative.As a rule one communicative type differs from another not only by the aim of commun but also by syntactic structure ,intonation and the listeners response.The declarative sentences express a statement either affirmative or negative.They r characterized by a direct word order ,a falling tone and r correlated with a listener’s responding signal of attention,disagreement,sympathy and so on.Ex:u look well,dad-middling.she has left me –my dear boy,my little boy. The interrogative sentence presents a request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener.It also difers structurally from declarative sentence by an inverted word order.The usual response to an interrogative sentence is an answer which together with a question forms a question answer dialogue unity.Ex:r there any letters for me?In the process of communication the interrogative commun purpose like any other is not always fulfilled and in such cases the respons to a question may be silence ,a verbal refusal to give an answer or another question Ex:then why did he marry her—ask me another .and how r u ,mr.brown—he turned his back and went away. Traditionally interrogative sentences r subdivided into several subsystems:general,special,so-called disjunctive ,alternative.This classification however reflects the difference in the structure of the sentence and not in the commun intention of the speaker.The analyses of the interrogative sentence from the point of view of the communicative intention of the speaker allowes us to make a few additions to the traditional classification.A closer look at the general and alternative question shows us that they do not differ much in their communicative aim ,which of both the question is to get information about the whole event and the response to both the question may be yes or no .So the difference appears to be only structural .In an alternative question the alternative is presented explicitly where as in general questions the alternative is implicit.Taking this into consideration we may regard general questions as compressed variants of alternative with the alternative implied and alternative question in their turn may be considered as extended variants of general questions with the alternative explicitly expressed in the structure of the question.As for the so-called disjunctive question the term disjunctive refers to the structure of the question but not to its communicative aim.The analyses of these questions in the aspect of their communicative function shows that they r used usually not to get some information but rather to confirm the information that the speaker already has and want the listener just to confirm whether the information is true.Ex:he arrived last night ,didn’t he? So the best term for these questions from the point of their role in communication would be confirmative questions.These quest-s have a high frequency in Eng and r used for different pragmatic purposes.Very often they r used with the intention to make the utterance less assertive ,more tentative Ex:this is not the best of your answers,is it? They also carry out emphatic or contact forming function because they r often used to involve the listener into the conversation.Ex:fine day,isn’t it? They may also be used as a means of making the speaker share your opinion or carry out the promise Ex: u will never go back ,will u?—No. It was pointed out by Charly Bally that a sentence contains 2 parts:the modus which expresses the attitude of the speaker to the information presented in the sentence and the dictum which contains inf-tion about an event of reality.Ex: I am afraid they were married yesterday.it might be probably they were married yesterday. In accordance with this theory of modus and dictum it is necessary to differentiate between 2 types of questions:the so-called modal q-ns which refer to the modus and dictal q-ns.Modal q-ns r aimed at finding out the speaker’s opinion about the event and dictal q-ns r aimed at getting factual inf-tion about the event of reality presented in the sentence.Ex:where were they married?where they married in church?\why do u say I am afraid?why fortunately? In this respect ‘why ‘q-ns may refer to both modus and dictal.Ex:I think he is a coward –Why?\i have to leave u today –why? The imperative expresses inducement either affirmative or negative and communicative function to induce the listener to perform or not to perform an action structurally the imperative sen-s r usually subjectless and the verb is used in the form of the imperative mood.They r correlated with the listener,s verbal or non-verbal response ,showing whether the inducement is carried out or rejected.Sometimes the subject may be introduced into the imperative sent –ce and it either emphasizes who should perform the action or makes the sentence a little bit more rude.Ex:don’t u tell me what I must do?

Exclamatory sent-s just reveal the speaker’s emotional state ,they do not have a communicative aim that could be placed on the same level with the 3 common types of sent-s.So,exclamatory sent-s just add a certain emotive charge to the 3 commun-ve types.

28. Transposition on the level of communicative types of sentences (ind speech acts)

The analyses of communicative types from the aspect of syntactic structures in which the com-ve aims r realized reveales a fundamental parallelism between a comun-ve type and a structural type of the sent.Yet this parallelism is not absolute and in the process of communication each type may be used not only in its primary function but also in its secondary commun-ve functions,it can transposed into the sphere of other com-ve types .In the theory of speech acts this phenomenon is described as indirect speech acts ,when a declarative does not bring information but expresses a request or a question .A declarative sentence may be used as a request for infor-tion when it is supposed by the proper intonation and the appropriate response Ex:so,u r familiar with the town?-I spent a winter here some years ago. This type of question is called suggestive and in there communicative function they r very close to confirmative question.Declarative s-ns can also be transposed into the sphere of imperative s-ns to express different types of inducement.Ex:I want u to be quite. The meaning of inducement in this sent is expressed lexically by the semantics of the verb to want which imparts an imperative meaning to the whole sent.Ex:I will thank u to leave me alone(impolite) Now we shall produce our licences.All these sent usually contain various markers of inducement:a modal verb (u can keep out of this ),a verb in the future tense,or a verb of violation plus the appropriate intonation of special interest r the sent which do not contain any specific markers of inducement and present the so-called implicit requests.Ex:there is no bread in the house.we haven’t been to the theatre for a long time.Such implicit inducements r often preferred to direct ones because they conform to the norms of British and American speech eticet.They make the inducement les assertive,more ontative and thus help to avoid communicative failures.interogative sent-s can be transposed into the sphere of declarative and imperative sent-s ,the most typical example of interrogative sent-s transposed into the sphere of declarative one is the so-called rhetorical quest-n ,which from the point of view of its communicative function presents an emphatic statement and the formal prof to it is the absence of an answer to such ques-n.Ex:if the fellow could build houses what did his clothes matter?rhetorical questions often occur in familiar quotations proverbs and everyday speechEx:can a leopard change his spots? What does the moon care ifa dog barks at her. Interogative sent-s of the ‘will u or would u ‘type r regularly used to express inducement and in this sphere they occur even more frequently than the forms of the imperative mood .Interogative sent-s of other types can also occur frequently in the sphere of inducement Ex:why do not we discuss it?/why not go there right now? Very often an interogative sent-s contains an implicit request Ex:will u be here for the next half an hour? Transposition of imperative sentences into the sphere of interrogative takes place with the verbs of speech activity.Ex:Tell me your name.Communicatively this sent-s doesn’t differ much from the interrogative sent-s and the verbal respone to them is the same.Imperative sent-s can also be transposed into the sphere of declarative sent-s to express condition.Ex:let women into your plan and u never know where it will end. As is always in the case of transposition the primary communicative meaning does not disappear completely but it is shifted to the background giving way to the secondary meaning.The interplay of 2 meanings creates the effect of transposition and makes it an effective means of expressive syntax.On the other hand the process of transposition reveals the flexibility and dynamism of the lang. and the absence of strict borderlines between its various subsystems.Taking this into consideration it is possible to point out after Bloch intermediate communicative types of sentence : declarative-interogative-suggestive quest-ns \interogative-declarative-rhetorical ques-ns\declarative-imperative.

29. In the process of com-ion one and the same sent may be used for making diffr utterances. These ut-ces may be identical in their syntact & sem str-res ; in their com functions and yet they differ in their inform value.

This asp of the sent anal which deals with the inform value is called the actual division of the sent.

Analyzed in this asp most utterances may be devided into 2 types: the given & the new; the theme & the rheme.

The theme is the part of the utterance which contains given, familiar inform that serves as the starting point of the utterance. It denotes an obj about which smth is started.

The rheme is the part of the sent which presents new inform for the sake of which the utterance is made. It's the focus of the utterance, its com center. The inform of the rheme may not be object-ly new but it's the most important for the speaker.

The rheme presupposes a question or a negation.

The majority of sent-s contain both: the theme & the rheme and are called dirhemic.

The utterances that contain only the rheme are monorhemic.

_ Means of expressing : the most universal means is Logical stress with the help of which the speaker may accentuate any part of the utterance both the notional & functional words. In writing- by itelixes (курсив).

Morphological means: Articles. "The"--theme, "A"--rheme.

On the syntact level to express the rheme--the word-order. When we are calm our thoughts flow from the given to the new. When emotional this usual order may be broken. This finds its reflection in 2 types of word-order: Objective & Subjective.

Obj w-order the theme precedes the rheme. The subj w-order- the rheme comes first. Thus, the Emphatic inversion serves to accentuate the rheme of the sent.

Emphatic constr: it-be-the-rheme+who/that clause.

There is/There are. {rheme}

As for/as to. {theme}

Other syntact means of expressing the rheme:

Repetition: You & only you... {rheme}

Ellipsis (the thematic part is deleted making the rheme very prominent.)

Parcellation usually introduce a sec-ry rheme.

Ephatic particles ex:only. {before rheme}

Pecularities of diffr sent-s: Majority of declarative sent-s & General qu-s are dirhemic. In Spec qu the pos-n of the rheme is open(vacant). Imper sent-s are mostly monorhemic.

The actual devision is always context-bound. The text is char-rise by Communicative Integrity. It is created by the components of act devision. The theme promotes the cohesion of the text, whereas the rheme promotes the com progression of the text.

30. A part of the sent (PS) is a minimal syntact unite destinguished on the basis of the formal features and the function of the word in the sent. it is the syntactic form of the word.

Trad-ly the PS are dev-d into Principle (subj, pred) & Secondary (obj, attr, AM). But it depends on which aspect of sent is taken into consideration. As for the relations b/w the subj & pred there's no unanimous oppinion about the qu-n which of them is the main el-t & which is subbordinate.

There are 3 oppinions ab it:

1. the main & important part is the Subj. Because the Pred agrees with the Subj in Number & person.

2. The main is Pred-t 'cause it is the str-ral & sem center of the sent.

3. Both are equal in their status.

The Subject

The subject is defined in traditional grammar as the thing we speak about. But it’s a logical definition rather than a grammatical one.

Syntactically the subject is the independent member of a two-member predication containing the person component of predicativity. It can be expressed by a word or a group of words.

When it is expressed by a notional word, it combines the notional and the structural subjects, but when the structural and the notional subjects are separated, which occurs often in M.E. , the former is expressed by a syntactical word-morpheme (it, there) and the latter, by a complex or a group of words: e.g. it is necessary for him to come. There is somebody in the room. It is awfully hard work doing nothing.

English impersonal sentences contain the structural subject only. [It is cold].In impersonal subject neither denotes nor points to any person or thing. It serves only as a structural element of the sentence. The impersonal subject is always expressed by ‘it’.

The semantic classification of the subject is as follows:

1. definite personal (The sun is down)

2. indefinite personal (They say that… One must be careful, you never know…)

3. impersonal (It is cold).

The Subject

It may be expressed by different parts of speech; the most frequent one is noun in the common case, a personal noun in the nominative case, a demonstrative pronoun, a substantivized adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, a gerund.

It may be expressed by a group of words or a clause.

Structurally the subject may be simple and complex. Complex subjects are usually expressed by means of predicative constructions with verbals, which imply the idea of secondary predication. E.g. For him to come would be fatal. Her coming up awoke me.

Professor Smirnitsky suggested the following classification of the personal subjects:

1. The personal subject proper: They finished their meal in silence.

2. The indefinite personal subject: They say the film is good.

3. The demonstrative subject: That is my sister.

4. The negative subject: Nothing can be done.

5. The interrogative subject: Who lives here?

The Predicate

The predicate is a member of predication denoting the action or property of the thing expressed by the subject and containing the mood and tense components of predicativity. There are several types of predicates. Structurally the predicates are divided into simple and compound, morphologically – into verbal and nominal.

The simple verbal predicate is expressed by one word-form that may be either a synthetical or analytical form of the verb, i.e. a verb in any tense, voice and mood. E.g. You will be given all the information when you come. He had been sleeping for 6 hours.

The phraseological unit predicate is a subdivision of the simple predicate expressed by a phraseological unit whose components denotes one idea and form an indivisible unit. E.g. He had a smoke. They had a wash. She gave a cry. I took leave of them.

There is another view according to which it is a subdivision of the compound predicate. Some English grammarians call it ‘a group-verb predicate’. The simple verbal predicate may coincide in form with the compound nominal predicate: The house is painted. – The house is painted every year.

Compound predicates may be subdivided into nominal and verbal.

1. The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verb and a predicative, also called a nominal part, which may e expressed by various parts of speech. It denotes the state or quality of the person or the thing expressed by the subject or the class of persons or things to which the object belongs. E.g. She is a student. He became angry.

2. The compound verbal predicate can be divided into types according to the meaning of the finite verb:

1. The compound verbal modal predicate may consist of a modal verb or a verbal phrase with a modal meaning and an infinitive or a gerund. This predicate shows whether the action expressed by a non-finite form is possible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. E.g. I could not go to the theatre.

2. The compound verbal aspect predicate consists of the finite form of the verb, which indicates the beginning, repetition, duration or end of the action denoted by the infinitive or gerund. Here belong such verbs as: to begin, to continue, to start, to keep on, to go on, to stop, to give up, to finish, etc. Also the combinations “would + infinitive” and “used + infinitive”, which express repeated habitual actions in the past belong here: e.g. He began to study properly. She stopped crying. He used to sit on the sofa and read.

There may be mixed types.

1. Compound nominal modal: We can be teachers.

2. Compound nominal aspective: We begin to be teachers.

The double predicate is a subtype of the compound predicate where the role of the link verb connecting the subject with the predicative is performed by the verb of the full meaning, i.e. a notional verb: She married young. He came home tired.

The notional verb may be in the passive voice: e.g. He was found guilty. He was reported dead.

Professor Smirnitsky’s semantic predicates are:

1. Processing: The doctor arrived.

2. Qualifying: He is a doctor.

3. Objective: He has many friends.

4. Adverbial: He is in London (here).

The Subj carries triple function: str-ral, sem, communicative. Str-ral f-ion is manifested in the fact that in E subj is oblig-ry (or "dummy Subj 'It' 'One').

According to the sem-tics of the Subj sent-s may be classificated into: -Personal. Ex: He was silent.

-General-Personal. Ex: We are foolish & sentimental at 25.

-Indef-Person. Ex: No one can say.

-Impersonal. Ex: It rained.

The Subj fulfills several sem functions. The primary is to introduce the agent of the action. The sec-ry funct-s: 1) The causer of the action; 2) The Obj/recepient (I was tought); 3)The addressee of the act(I was given a leave); 4) The instr-t of the act(The movement awakened her); 5) The time of the act(Morning found him in bed); 6) The place of the act(Paris was sunny); 7) Action(All seeing is interpretation).

The Predicate.

The P is the part of the sent which expresses a predicative feature attributed to the subj. The Pred also carries out a triple function: str-ral, sem, communic.

Str-ral f consists in establishing the syntact relations with the Subj & other PS. The sem f-ion attributes certain features to the Subj. Its Communicative f-ion is that through the Pred the sent becomes a minimal unite of com-n.

According to their form of expression pred-s are dev-d into: Verbal (The Moon rose); Nominal (The Moon was pale).

These 2 types correspond to the 2 main sem types: Proces Pred (expr the act, the state, the existence of the Subj); & Qualification Pred (expr the quality of the Subj). The Process Pred-t can be further subdev-d in accordance with the sem type of verbs: 1) existentional (There is a lake.) 2) statal (He slept.) 3) locative (The ken-roo lives in Australia.) 4)relational (He had a small range.) 5) actional (He sold his house.)

The qualif pred-s also have several subtypes:

1. identifying (So you are the man...) 2)classifying (Hi is a student.) 3) char-rising (She is a good boy.)

Str-rally the Pred-s are dev-d into: Simple & Compound.

31. The Object.

The O is often oblig-ry. They are classified according to: form, meaning, str-re.

According to the form there are prep/non-prep obj-s.

According to sem-s O-s are: Direct, Indirect, Instrumental, Cognate, Adverbial.

The primary sem funct-n of DO-to denote the patient of the action, ie a thing of a person affected by the action. IO denotes the addressee of the action, ie a living being which is the recepient of the act or in whose favor the act is done.

Many E verbs are detransitive:they require both a DO & IO.

The Aggentive O is found in sent-s with the passive voice & it denotes the agent of the act.

The Instr-tal O denotes the instr-t of the act & occures both with active & passive pred-s.

The Cognate O is an obj which has the same rote or the same semantics as the pred-t (to smile a smile).

Adverbial O constituts the perifiral zone in the class of obj-s which is close to the AM. {eg. to climb a mountain}

According to their str-re O-s may be Simple & complex.

OBJECT

1. Nouns, substantivized adjectives or participles. I kissed the girt. She helped the poor/ the wounded. (But that was not t reason why I kissed her.)

2. Numerals, phrases with numerals .I found three of them behind the door of my bathroom.

3.Gerunds, gerundial phrases. He insists on coming (who doesn 't)). I hate being looked after.

4. Pronouns, I don't want anybody here. But they don't understand that.

5.Infinitives, infinitive phraser. I am glad to see you. I have to learn how to strip men of money.

6.Different predicative complexes.

I felt him trembling all over. He wanted it done quickly. Everything depended on his, working properly with his hands.

7. Object clauses. I thought of what he had done and wanted more.