3 Rhyme ['raim]

Rhyme also belongs to the phonetic SD. It is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words, which are placed at a regular distance from each other (usually at the end of the lines).

Rhyme can be full or incomplete.

When the rhyme is full, we have identity of the vowels and the following consonants in a stressed syllables. E.g. right-night, double-trouble.

As for incomplete rhyme, it is presented with a greater variety. Thus, incomplete rhyme can be of the following groups:

1. 1 – vowel rhymes, e.g. flesh – flesh – press;

2 – consonant rhymes, e.g. worth – forth; tale – tool;

II. eye-rhyme, e.g. have-grave, love-prove.

You see, that the sounds here are not identical. This kind of rhyme can be distinguished only in the writtern verse. Very often it is the result of historical changes in the vowels in certain periods and certain positions.

III. internal rhyme, e.g. Once upon a midnight dreary while I pondered weak and weary.

The rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line which is broken into two distinkt parts.

Thus two functions of rhyme are simulteneously realized:

1 – dissevering (разделительная) (is used in a distinctive pause, as a natural

result of the longer line);

2 – consolidating (объединяющая) (occurs unexpectedly in ordinary speech or in

prose).

4 Rhythm ['ri:ðm] (ритм, размер стиха)

Rhythm is the next phonetic SD which is to be mentioned. It exists in all spheres of human activity. Rhythm is characterized by basically regular elements as an accent in alternation with opposite elements. It is a kind of specification – periodicity [piəriə‘disiti].

Generally speaking this SD is an arrangement of speech into regularly units grasped as a definite periodicity. Rhythm as the main fact, which brings order into the utterance.

In language Rhythm demands oppositions of segments of speech: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low.

The concept of rhythm is distinguished from metre [‘mi:tə] (размер, ритм) as any form of periodicity in verse. It is determined by the character and number of syllables of the utterance.

The metre is an ideal phenomenon characterized by its strict regularity and unchangeability. In verses it is accented by the stresses in a line; in prose – by the alteration of syntactical patterns.

Rhythm intensifies the emotions and must not be regarded as phonetic-autonomy to amount to an irrelevant texture. It has a meaning.

Thus as a SD rhythm in verse is defined as a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it.

It should be noticed that the rhythm in verse and in prose are different. In prose it is not the syllable but a structure, a word combination, a sequence of words (phrase, sentences). The structural pattern in such case is repeated within the given passage of prose after short intervals.

Rhythmical patterns in prose are based on the use of the such Sds as repetition, parallel construction and so on.

4. Characterize the given text according to its functional style. Speak on the peculiarities of the belle-lettres style.

1. Functional styles

1. the belles-lettres style ['bel 'letr]

• poetry (poetical style)

• emotive prose

• drama

2. the publicistic style

• oratory [‘orәtәri]

• essays [‘eseiz]

• articles

3. the newspaper style

• brief (сжатый) news items

• headlines

• advertisements (реклама) and announcements (сообщение, объявление)

• editorials, [‘edit’to:riәl] (передовая статья)

4. the scientific style

5. the style of official documents

The notion of style in functional Stylistics

The notion of style has to do with how we use the language under specific circumstances for a specific purpose. The notion of using English, for instance, involves much more than using our knowledge of its linguistic structure.

Style is our knowledge how language is used to create and interpret texts and conversational interactions.

Functional styles are studied with the various branches of linguistics such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, pragmatics, textlinguistics and stylistics.

Functional styles are distinguished from varieties of language. The basic forms of communication pointed out: the written and oral varieties of the language. They depend on the ‘presence or absence of an interlocutor.

The distinctive features of each style are shaped with the coordination of language media and SDs. Each FS has its one or more feature, as special terminology for scientific prose.

Functional styles

FS is a patterned variety text characterized by the typification of its cons’tituents. The choice and arrangement of language media have the aim to secure (обеспечить) the purpose of the communication.

Each FS is a stable system at the given stage in the development of the literary language.

There are many types of classification of FSs. We close to the system of professor Galperin I. R. who includes in the classification of FSs only the written variety of the language. According to Galperin I. R. style is the result of creative activity of the writer who consciously and deliberately selects language means that create style.

1. The belles-lettres style ['bel 'letr]

The main feature of the belles-lettres style is an aesthetic-cognitive function which creates thanks to language means of different layers using by the author. This style is very individual in character. The purpose of belles-letters style is to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena from the author’s point of view.

This style has certain linguistic features:

• Genuine imagery, achieved by linguistic devices.

• Words are used in contextual and more than one dictionary meaning.

• A vocabulary reflects the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

• Individual selection of vocabulary and syntax.

• The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language and its emotive signs.

So the belles-lettres style is subdivided into:

• poetry (poetical style)

• emotive prose

• drama

Each of the three substyles has common and, at the same time, individual features, which help to recognize them (to single them out).

Poetry

The language of poetry / verse is based on the rhythmic and poetic arrangement of the utterance. Its property is the orderly form. The rhythmic aspect is arranged by the syntactical and semantic peculiarities. Both syntax and semantics have the restrictions imposed by the rhythmic pattern and as the result of it – the expression, unexpected imagery, fresh – the lexical peculiarities of verse.

Many different SDs are used here: onomatopoeia, alliteration, parallel constructions, repetition, metaphors, epithets.

So, rhythm and rhyme are distinguishable properties of the poetic style, they reflect special metric arrangement and serve to provide compositional patterns. Forms of rhyme and rhythm are studied under the terms prosody.

Compositional patterns of rhythmical arrangement are metre (размер) and line (строка).

Classical verse is based on:

1. alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables;

2. a natural pause at the end of the line.

The role of the sound of a word in poetry is more important than its meaning. Words become more conspicuous and mean more than they mean in isolation.

Imagery here as a linguistic device provides (обеспечивает) the contextual information, creates a perception of an abstract notion by associations between abstract and concrete.

Emotive prose

Emotive prose has the same common features as the belles-lettres style in general. But the imagery is not so rich as it is in poetry; the contextual meaning is not so high as in poetry. It is apart from the metre and rhyme.

Emotive prose is a combination of the spoken and written varieties of the language in two forms of communication: monologue (the writer’s speech) and dialogue (the character’s speech).

The language of the writer depends on the literary norms of the given period in the development of the English literary language.

The language of the hero of a novel has the aim to characterize the man himself. It is a device of depicting a hero through his own speech.

The colloquial language in the emotive prose is not a pure reproduction of a natural speech of people; it reflects changes introduced by the writer. The most striking element is a conversation.

The elements of other styles are used in emotive prose: the elements of the newspaper, official styles and scientific prose.

Drama

The language of plays is entirely a dialogue and a direct speech: non-literary forms and expressions are used here. The author’s speech here is the playwright’s remarks and stage directions.

The language of the characters is in no way the exact reproduction of colloquial language. It is mainly stylized type of the spoken variety of language. The spoken language tends to simplify syntax through omission of some functional words and ellipses to amply the utterance to sake of the auditory.

5. Speak on stylistic devices based on peculiar use of syntactical (structural) meaning: Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis), Question-in-the-Narrative, Inner speech.

Stylistic Devices based on peculiar use of syntactical (structural) meaning

Emotional syntactical structures typical of spoken language are these used in informal and intimate conversations where personal feelings are introduced into the utterance. They are common in dialogues, where they are hardly be perceived as special SDs, but they becomes SDs when used or mixed in the written language to represent personality of the speaker.

• Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis) [,æpo(u)saio(u)’pi:sis] (апозиопезис)

The written variety of language is characterized by logical coherence. A break in the narrative is treated as a deliberate device the aim of which is to focus the attention on what is said. The only key to decoding aposiopesis is the context: “You just come home or I’ll…”. It may convey to the reader a strong upsurge of emotions; it may be caused by euphemistic considerations.

• Question-in-the-Narrative

Question-in-the-Narrative is asked and answered by the same person, usually the author thus assuming a semi-exclamatory nature. It has strong emotional implications. It is often used in oratory: “For what is left the poet here? For Greeks a blush – for Greece a tear”.

The aim of Question-in-the-Narrative is to establish a certain kind of contact between the speaker and the listener as it chains the attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with and prevents it from wandering. It gives the listeners time to absorb what has been said and prepare them for the next point.

• Represented speech

Represented speech is a peculiar device which aims at retaining the peculiarities of the speaker’s mode of expression by conveying his actual words or thoughts not directly as in direct speech but through the mouth of the author. There are two varieties of Represented speech: uttered and unuttered.

The formal signs by which one could recognize uttered represented speech are as follows:

1. the shift of the tense-form from the present to the past;

2. the change of the pronoun from the first and the second person to the third;

3. a peculiar choice of vocabulary (a change for colloquial words and expressions);

4. the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change: Could he…

• Unuttered (Inner) represented speech or Inner monologue

Unuttered (Inner) represented speech (or Inner monologue) has the aim to convey feelings and thoughts of the character. Unlike represented speech it abounds in exclamatory words, in elliptical and unfinished sentences, etc. Sometimes it is introduced by verbs of mental perceptions “to think, ask oneself, wonder, tell, feel”, but often the shift from the author’s narrative to inner represented speech is almost imperceptible. The device helps the writer to depict a character.