66. Which of the methods of risk analysis have no disadvantages?

Preliminary hazard analysis - determines the risk to the system.	Advantages: is a first necessary step. Disadvantages: None.
Analysis using the failure tree - begins with a triggering event, then consider alternative sequences of events.	Advantages: widely applicable. Disadvantages: large trees of failures are difficult to understand, unsuitable for detailed study.
Analysis of failure modes and effects – considered for all types of failures for each element. Oriented for equipment.	Advantages: easy to understand, widely applicable, consistent. Disadvantages: consider non-dangerous faults, time-consuming
Criticality Analysis - identifies and classifies the elements to improve the system.	Advantages: easy to use and understand. Disadvantages: often do not take into account ergonomics, with a common cause of failure and the interaction of the system.

67. Which parameters of the method of risk evaluation provide an increase of life expectancy? A method of evaluation developed by the research laboratory of General Motors doesn’t concern this issue, focusing on life expectancy. Basic premise: a means to reduce risk are intended to increase life expectancy. 68. What are the three major methods of cardiopulmonary resuscitation set forth in the “Rules for ABC”? The fundamental importance of the three major methods of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in their logical sequence set forth in the form of "Rules for ABC: A - ensuring airway passage. E – performing artificial respiration. C - restoration of blood circulation. 69. What should be the frequency of the inhalation when performing an artificial lung ventilation (ALV) by "donor’s" method? Modern methods of recovery of patients and victims have three advantages over other previously used methods based on the change in volume of the chest, namely: a) in the exhaled air of the donor the oxygen content reaches 17%, which is sufficient for absorption by the victim’s lungs; b) in the exhaled air of carbon dioxide - up to 4%. The gas, entered the victim's lungs, stimulates the respiratory center of the central nervous system and stimulates the restoration of spontaneous (independent) respiration of the victim. c) in comparison with other methods of providing a greater volume of incoming air into the lungs of the victim.  The only disadvantage of the method of artificial respiration by "donor" is the presence of a psychological barrier - hard to force oneself to breathe in the mouth or nose to another person, sometimes a stranger. This barrier must be overcome for the sake of saving someone’s life.

To do this:

1. Place the patient in an appropriate position: put on a solid surface on his back, roll clothes under the shoulder. Throw his head back.

2. Open his mouth and examine the oral cavity. When the muscles are convulsively compressed, use a knife, screwdriver, or spoon to open it. Clear the mouth with a handkerchief and, if necessary, remove the tongue to open the airway.

3. Stand on the right side. Hold the head of the victim by the left while closing the nasal passages by fingers. Use the right hand to put forward and up the lower jaw. It is very important following manipulations:           a) The thumb and middle finger holding back the jaw of the zygomatic arch;           b) index finger reveal the oral cavity;           c) the tips of the ring finger and little finger (4 and 5 fingers) control the pulse of carotid arteries (сонные артерии).

4. Make a deep inhalation and blow the air into the victim’s mouth. For a hygienic purpose the mouth should be preliminary covered with a clean tissue. Control the chest elevation by eyes. The frequency of the inhalation cycles should be 12-15 per minute e.g. one inhalation per 5 sec.

When a sign of independent breezing appear, do not stop immediately and continue until the independent breeze reaches 12-15 inhalations per minutes

70. What are the signs of sudden cardiac arrest? The signs of sudden cardiac arrest - sudden pallor, loss of consciousness, loss of pulse in the carotid arteries, the cessation of breathing or the appearance of rare, convulsive breaths, dilated (widened) pupils.

71. What are criteria of the effectiveness of indirect cardiac massage? The effectiveness of blood circulation created by the heart massage is determined by three criteria: the emergence of pulsation of carotid arteries, a narrowing of the pupils and the emergence of independent breaths. The effectiveness of indirect cardiac massage is ensured by the correct application of the pressure to the victim's chest (lower half of the sternum). The hands should be correctly placed (Fig. 3.5, 3.6 - proximal part of the palm of one hand is set on the lower half of the sternum and the other palm is placed on the rear of the first, perpendicular to its axis, the first fingers of the hand should be slightly raised and not put pressure on the chest cells affected).

72. What should be the frequency pace when performing an indirect cardiac massage? . One person can do resuscitation; first, the rescuer performs indirect cardiac massage in a more frequent pace - about 15 contractions of the heart in 12 seconds, then for 3 seconds - 2 energetic air blows into the lungs; 4 such cycles performed per minute, and totally - 60 contractions of the heart and 8 inhalations.

73. What kind of bleeding is referred to as internal hidden bleeding? Internal hidden bleeding, ie bleeding in the closed body cavity, occurs mainly as a result of damage to internal organs (liver, lung, etc.), while blood is not at the same time excreted. This bleeding can be suspected only by changes in the general state of the wounded and by the symptoms of accumulation of fluid in a cavity. Bleeding into the abdominal cavity is manifested as a pale appearance, weak rapid pulse, thirst, drowsiness, darkening in the eyes, fainting. When bleeding into the chest cavity, these symptoms are combined with shortness of breath. When bleeding into the cranial cavity the signs of compression of the brain appear - headache, impaired consciousness, respiratory disorders, paralysis, etc.

74. What volume of circulating blood of the human body is located in the venous stream? In the human body 70% of the total volume of circulating blood is located in the venous stream, 12% - in the capillaries, 3% - in the vessels and chambers of the heart, and only 15% - in the arterial stream of a circulating blood volume.

75. What treatments are required in case of strong or mixed arterial bleeding? such treatments are not sufficient for a treatment of strong or mixed arterial bleeding. In these cases, other ways to stop bleeding can be used: finger pressing on the artery, the imposition of tourniquet or forced flexion of the limb. To stop bleeding by pressing the artery above the wound, it is important to know the point at which the artery can be pressed to the bone (Fig. 5.2). As a rule, the pulsation of the arteries can be found pressing which with the finger or fist can almost instantly stop bleeding. However, to keep pressure long enough, immediately after the pressing the artery, another way to stop bleeding should be used. For this purpose tourniquet is often used. After applying tourniquet bleeding should stop, but if it continues, then the tourniquet should be removed, and placed above the site of its original imposition.

76. What is the first aid provided in case of a traumatic dislocation?  First aid. Providing the first aid at the scene, do not try to replace a dislocation, as it often causes an additional trauma. It is necessary to ensure rest of the damaged joint by immobilizing it (see Section 12.1. - Immobilization, Fig. 6.2.). Place the cold (ice pack or cold water). When an open wound occurs preliminary impose a sterile bandage. Do not apply a hot compress. Dislocation should be corrected by a doctor in the first hours after injury.

77. What is referred to as a tissue damage that occurs under the influence of high temperature, electric current, acids, alkalis, or ionizing radiation? Burns - tissue damage that occurs under the influence of high temperature, electric current, acids, alkalis, or ionizing radiation. Accordingly, there can be distinguished thermal, electrical, chemical and radiation burns. Thermal burns occur most often, accounting for 90-95% of all burns.

78. What is the first aid in case of burns before the arrival of the doctor? First aid is the termination of the damaging factors. When burns are caused by the flame you should extinguish burning clothing, remove the victim from the fire zone. If burns are caused by fuel, or molten metal - quickly remove clothing from the area of burns. To stop the effects of the temperature factor the rapid cooling of the affected area of the body is required by immersing in cold water, under a stream of cold water or sprinkle with chloroethylene. When chemical burns occur (except lime burn) the surface of injury needs to abundantly wash as quickly as possible with water from the tap. In the case of clothing absorbed with the chemically active substance it should be quickly removed. It is absolutely contraindicated to do any manipulation with burn wounds.

In order to reduce pain the victim can take analginum (Pentalgin, tempalgin, sedalgin). For large burns the victim can take 2-3 tablets of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), and 1 tablet of dimedrol. Before the arrival of the doctor give to the victim to drink hot tea and coffee, alkaline mineral water (500-2000 ml) or the following solutions: I solution - sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) 1 / 2 teaspoon, sodium chloride (table salt) 1 teaspoon per 1 liter of water; II solution - tea, to 1 liter of which add 1 teaspoon of salt and 2 / 3 teaspoon of bicarbonate or sodium citrate. On the burned surface after treatment with 70% ethyl alcohol or vodka impose aseptic dressing.

In extensive burns the victim is wrapped in a clean cloth or towel and immediately transported to the hospital. Application of various ointments or fish oil to the burnt surface at home immediately after the burn is not justified, because it can heavily pollute the wound, slow down its further recovery and determination of the depth of destruction. For the local treatment of burns multi-component aerosols (levovinizol, olazol, livian, panthenol) a well as St. John's wort herb (зверобой) extract can be effectively used.

79. What is the first aid in case of frostbite? First aid. It is of great importance providing the first aid measures of a general warming of the affected (hot coffee, tea, milk). Fast delivery of the victim to a medical institution is also a measure of the first aid. During transportation all measures to prevent re-cooling should be taken. If the first aid was not provided before the arrival of ambulance, it should be done during transportation.           The main thing to avoid heating of the frostbitten parts of the body from the outside, because the detrimental effect of the warm air, hot water, warm objects and even hands. When the victim is introduced into the heated room, frostbitten parts of the body, usually hands or feet, should be insulated from heat by putting on them insulation bandages (cotton-gauze, wool and others).

The bandage should cover only the region with the injured skin, not covering the unchanged skin. Otherwise, the heat from the body areas with intact blood circulation will be distributed under the bandage on the frostbitten parts causing warming of their surface which must not be allowed! Bandage is left until a feeling of warmth and sensitivity in the fingers or toes is restored. In this case, warming of tissues will occur due to heat brought by blood flow and viability of the tissues of the affected area will be restored along with restoration of blood flow in it. It is important to ensure the immobility of frostbitten fingers and toes, because their vessels are very fragile and therefore may hemorrhage after restoration of blood flow. To ensure their immobility, it is enough to apply any kind of transport immobilization by improvised or standard tires.

When frostbite is accompanied with the loss of consciousness, the basic rule remains as the imposition of heat-insulating bandages on affected hands and feet, as soon as the victim is transported in the warm room. The signs of life in the form of the presence of elements of consciousness, respiration, heart rate, pupil reaction to light have to be determined according to the "donor’s" method and careful indirect heart massage. Body is wrapped with cotton or wool blanket. Frozen shoes do not remove and feet in the shoes are wrapped in any appropriate material. After providing the necessary assistance the victim's condition is monitored and subsequently hospitalized in a medical facility.

80. What is the first aid in case of electric shock? First aid. One of the key moments is the immediate termination of electrical current. This is achieved by turning off the current (turning the switch, plugs, wires fail), diverting the electrical wires from the victim (by dry rope or stick), grounding or shunting wire (connected to each other two current-carrying wires). Touching the affected with unprotected hands when the electric current not turned off is dangerous. When separating the victim from the wires you must carefully inspect it. Local damage should be treated and covered with the bandage, as in burns. With injuries, accompanied by light general events (syncope, transient loss of consciousness, dizziness, headache, pain in the heart), first aid is to keep the patient in peace and deliver to a hospital. It must be remembered that the general condition of the victim can sharply and suddenly deteriorate in the coming hours after the injury: there are circulatory disturbances of the heart muscle, the phenomenon of secondary shock, etc. Such states are sometimes observed even in the most affected with a light general manifestations (headache, general weakness). As a first aid may be given pain-killers (amidopirina 0,25 g, 0,25 g analgin), sedatives (Bechterev medicine, tincture of valerian), cardiac agents (Zelenin drops and others).           In case of severe general phenomena, accompanied by disorder or cessation of breathing, development of "apparent death", the only effective measure of first aid is an immediate artificial respiration, sometimes for several hours. When doing heart artificial respiration the condition of the patient rapidly improves, the skin acquires a natural color, the pulse and blood pressure begins to be determined. The most effective artificial breathing is mouth to mouth (16-20 breaths per minute). After the victim comes back to consciousness, he should drink (water, tea, juice, but not alcoholic drinks and coffee) and protected from the heat.           First aid for cardiac arrest should be started as early as possible, ie, in the first 5 minutes, to maintain live cells of the brain and spinal cord. Cardiac massage and artificial respiration is recommended to continue until the full restoration of their functions or the appearance of obvious signs of death. The victim is transported in a prone position. During transport the patient should be closely monitoring, because at any time there can happen cessation of breathing or cardiac activity.

81. What is the first aid in case of poisoning by industrial gases? In providing assistance to victims of snake bite following activities are strictly prohibited: • Burning the bite site. • Injection of the bite site with any drugs. • The incision of the site of the bite. • Tie up the limb with the braid (except for a cobra bite). • Drinking alcohol in any quantity.           First aid at the snake bite should begin with an immediate strong suction of the contents of lesions within 10-15 (20) minutes (in the first 6 minutes, about 3 / 4 of all the extracted venom is removed), with its spitting out that allows you to remove from 30 to 50% of poison introduced into the body. If wounds are drying, they first need to "open up" by pressure on the skin folds. Procedure of suction snake venom is safe in the absence of sores in the mouth with self-help of the affected or in the mouth of the assisting. The venom is cleared in the stomach by gastric juices. The affected limb must be kept stationary. Transportation immobilization is preferable by the use of improvised means (tires, planks, thick branches, etc.).           The victim should be placed in a prone position at the assistance and during transport. It is undesirable to move the affected limb. It’s useful to drink plenty of water (tea, coffee, soup). Drinking alcohol in any form is forbidden. Processing of the wound is held by the general rules of treatment of wounds (the skin around the wound is treated with alcohol, brilliant green, iodine or vodka, sterile bandage is applied from the individual package, bandage tightly secured with plaster). In case of cessation of breathing breath "mouth to mouth or respiratory support through the bags is held with a translation into the artificial respiration system in stationary conditions. The victim in all cases urgently referred to a doctor with further hospitalization in the toxicological department of the hospital, in intensive care department, or the department of general surgery.

82. What is referred to as natural phenomena or processes that cause catastrophic situation, characterized by the sudden destruction of the livelihoods of the population, destruction of property, failure and death? Natural disasters - a natural phenomena or processes that cause catastrophic situation, characterized by a sudden destruction of the livelihoods of the population, destruction of property, failure and human death.

83. What is first aid required at the sign of prolonged compression syndrome? Prolonged compression syndrome, or so-called crash syndrome - one of the most dangerous injuries. Prolonged pressure by heavy subjects: the wreckage of building structures, trunks of fallen trees, massive furniture and the like - on the arm or leg can cause termination of blood flow to the limbs. This leads to metabolic disorders in humans. Consequences of crash syndrome often associated with amputation.

Having determined that the victim has signs of syndrome by prolonged compression: Perform an external inspection of the whole body, give anesthetic, place on the tourniquet above the place of compression, freeing and warming the victim. Remember, there is no time to waste. Urgently deliver the person to the hospital, he/she needs professional help. You have done everything you could.

84. What are measures of individual protection required incase of flood? ). Individual preventive security measures include: • construction of capital structures, rather than those that collapse at the first wave attack; training of all members of the family to swimming; • availability of boats; • familiarity with topographically elevated points in the nearby area; • knowledge of methods and forms of warning of impending disaster.

85. What is referred to as emergencies of natural origin according to the Law of the RK “On emergency situations of natural and man-made”? emergencies of natural origin - emergencies caused by natural disasters (earthquakes, mudflows, avalanches, floods and other), wildfires, epidemics and epizootics, lesions of agricultural plants and forest diseases and pests;

86. What is referred to as man-made emergencies according to the Law of the RK “On emergency situations of natural and man-made”? man-made emergencies - emergencies caused by industrial, transport and other accidents, fires (explosions), accidents, emissions (the threat of release) of highly toxic, radioactive or biologically hazardous materials, the sudden collapse of buildings and structures, dam failure, accidents at electric power and communication support systems, sewage treatment plants;87. What are basic principles of protection of the population, environment and facilities management in emergency situations of natural and technogenic? The main principles of protection of population, environment and facilities management in emergency situations of natural and man-made are:

- Publicity and public awareness and organizations on emerging and foreseeable emergency measures for their prevention and elimination; - Early identification of risk and hazard of the organizations and citizens, if it represents a potential danger, teaching people how to protect and implement measures to prevent emergencies; - Bound to carry out rescue, disaster recovery and other urgent works on liquidation of emergency situations, emergency medical care, social protection of population and the affected employees, compensation for damage caused by emergency health and property of citizens, environment and facilities management. 88. What are responsibilities of organizations in emergencies of natural and man-made disasters? Organizations are required in emergency situations of natural and man-made disasters:

- To plan and conduct activities to improve the sustainability of its operations and ensure the safety of workers and the public; - Provide information in the prescribed manner, notify the employees and the public about the threat or occurrence of emergencies; - To teach workers how to protect and act in emergency situations of non-military formations, to create and maintain a constant readiness to local warning systems for emergencies; - To carry out protective measures, rescue and emergency repair and other urgent works on liquidation of emergency situations on the subordinate objects of industrial and social facilities and the surrounding areas in accordance with approved plans; - In cases stipulated by law to provide compensation for damage caused by emergency workers and other citizens, to carry out post-emergency activities to improve the environment, restoration of economic activity of organizations and citizens. Organizations whose activities have an increased risk of emergencies on a list established by the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, are obliged to create reserves of financial and material resources to ensure the creation, training and maintaining the readiness of forces and means of prevention and liquidation of emergency situations. Organizations represented in the authorized body of the declaration of safety of industrial facilities in the manner prescribed by the laws of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

89. What are the key principles of emergency management? management of emergencies - and rescue and emergency repair and other urgent works carried out during emergencies and to save lives and preserve human health, reduction of damage and material losses, as well as the localization of zones of emergency; Key emergency principle

The key principle taught in almost all systems is that the rescuer, be they a lay person or a professional, should assess the situation for danger.

The reason that an assessment for danger is given such high priority is that it is core to emergency management that rescuers do not become secondary victims of any incident, as this creates a further emergency that must be dealt with.

A typical assessment for danger would involve observation of the surrounding, starting with the cause of the accident (e.g. a falling object) and expanding outwards to include any situational hazards (e.g. fast moving traffic). Once a primary danger assessment has been complete, this should not end the system of checking for danger, but should inform all other parts of the process.