Watershed Event in the European Politics

Towards the end of 19’th century and increasingly at the beginning of the 20’th century, in the rush for overseas territories France and Britain had been joined by Germany. I.e. eventually, Germany embarked on Weltpolitik (“world policy”). British boastfully described their empire as “The empire, on which the sun never sets”. Germany’s Emperor William 2 asserted Germany’s claim to “a place in the sun”.

By the beginning of the 20’th century Germany became the most powerful state in continental Europe (in demographical, economical, military terms). However in the middle of the 19’th century Britain was the only industrial power of any importance. But by 1914 Germany had surpassed Britain in the production of iron and approached her output of coal (But the USA by 1914 was the world’s leading producer of coal, and its iron production surpassed of Britain and Germany combined).

Germany engaged in acute commercial rivalry with Britain (Germany was driven to seek foreign outlets for trade). By concentrating on the production of finished steel products, cotton textiles, coal, and chemicals Germany competed directly with the products of British industrialism. But that competition was mitigated by a mutually beneficial division of world markets. Germany directed its exports to East and South Europe, a region of minimal interest to Britain. Britain was primarily interested in its empire and Latin America. (p. 35)

Alliances in pre-war Europe.

During the late 19th and early 20^th centuries Europe was dominated by two alliances, the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, and the Triple Entente of France, Russia, and Britain.

The Triple Alliance, agreed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, lasts until 1915

The Triple Entente Антанта, Тройственное согласие (союз Великобритании, Франции и России; сформировался в 1904-07 гг. и противостоял Тройственному союзу в годы 1-й мировой войны)

Triple Entente [än'tänt] = an early 20th-century alliance between Great Britain, France, and Russia. Originally a series of loose agreements, the Triple Entente began to assume the nature of a more formal alliance as the prospect of war with the Central Powers became more likely, and formed the basis of the Allied powers in World War I

=France wanted to reclaim its former eastern provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which had been taken by Germany after the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War.

=Germany was casting envious eyes over the British Empire and saw creating a navy as powerful as the Royal Navy as key to enlarging its own overseas possessions, while Italy was in dispute with Austria-Hungary over territory in the Alps. In the Balkans there was opposition from Serbia to Austria-Hungary’s

annexation of Bosnia and Hercegovina, which contained large Serbian minorities.

=Russia was keen to encourage fellow Slavs, supported Serbia.

The diplomatic drift towards war

In the years leading to World War I there are five major powers within Europe - Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. The cast list is unchanged since the early 18th century (except that Prussia is now Germany), and the players are well used to the game of diplomacy in which alliances formed for defensive purposes turn into aggressive partnerships as soon as a new war develops (a circumstance considered almost inevitable sooner or later in the atmosphere of national rivalry).

However the 19th century has introduced one new element in the form of very much shorter wars. If the Seven Years' War characterizes the 18th century, the Seven Weeks' War is more typical of the 19th (the Franco-Prussian War is almost equally short).

!=The idea of rapid victory in a short war is particularly prevalent in Germany, the victor in both the 7 Weeks' War and the Franco-Prussian War.

!=And the German nation is both more hungry for immediate success on the international stage than its rivals, and more nervous about succumbing to hostile alliances.

The reasons are numerous. Germany has recently been transformed by Bismarck from a relatively minor player to potentially the most powerful nation in continental Europe. But as a late arrival on the world stage, it has no empire to match those of Britain, France and Russia. Nor, unlike them, has it a great navy - the most tangible symbol, perhaps, of international power.

German nervousness is increased during the 1890s when alliances among the European powers seem to be slipping beyond German control. Bismarck worked on the assumption of hostility from France (eager to avenge the loss of Alsace and Lorraine) and a neutral stance from Britain (historically the great rival of France). He therefore concentrated his efforts on creating alliances with his eastern neighbours, Russia and Austria-Hungary. To these he added Italy, a new nation on the verge of great power status within Europe. The Triple Alliance, agreed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, lasts until 1915.

Bismarck's chosen path is not easy, particularly since Austria-Hungary and Russia have conflicting spheres of interest in the unstable Balkans. As a result, while Austria-Hungary and Italy remain constant allies (the three nations become known from 1882 as the Central Powers of Europe), Bismarck is constantly having to patch up or renew the alliance with Russia under the pressure of international events. (Central Powers of Europe- 3 nations Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary)

The careful edifice crumbles after Bismarck's dismissal in 1890. The new Kaiser, recognizing the incompatibility of Russia and Austria-Hungary as allies, breaks off the alliance with Russia. As a result Russia and France, both equally alarmed by Germany, begin secret negotiations - which result in the Franco-Russian alliance of 1894.

Then, even more surprisingly, in 1904 France and Britain agree an unprecedented Entente. And in 1908 Austria annexes Bosnia-Hercegovina, ending any hope of a rapprochement with Russia (the traditional protector of the Serbs, who are outraged by Austria's action). Austria-Hungary, a declining power, and the relatively weak Italy now seem to be Germany's only probable allies in a European conflict. And by this time many, particularly in Germany, feel that such a conflict cannot be far in the future.

!=All the major nations have been preparing for such an eventuality, but Germany has done so in the most deliberate fashion. (I.E. Europeans were preparing for major war)