Interaction of the meanings(Ind-Cont-Perf):

-Pr.Cont./Fut.Cont.—to denote future action:Are we playing poker tomorrow?At 12 I’ll still be working.

-The Pr.Ind.,not the Pr.Cont.is used to denote actions going on at the pr.moment when the fact is imp.,not the process:Why don’t you read your examples?

-When there’re 2actions;1is in the progress,the other-habitual we use Pr.Cont.&Pr.Ind:I never talk while I’m working.

-Past Ind/Cont. are used after the whole day/all day long:They worked/were working in the garden all day long.

-Verbs of sense perception&motion(hear,see,come,arrive,return,smell)are used in the Pr./Past Ind. Not in the Pr./Past Perf. In adverbial cl. of time:I’m sure he’ll recognize the poem when he hears the 1^st time.

-Past Ind.<->Pr.Perf.—an action expr.by P.Ind.belongs to the past,while Pr.Perf.shows that the action happened in the past is connected with the present:He has lost his keys(he’s still looking for them); He met him yesterday.

28) Accor-g to their meanings v. can be divided into 2 groups:durative and non- durative.Non-d. imply a limit beyond which action can’t continue, they have a final aim in view.open, close,bring,break,refuse.Dur-ve v.don’t imply any such limit,the action can go on indefinitely.carry,live,speak,know.But as most v. in English are polysemantic they can be non-dur-ve in one mean-g and dur-ve in another.Ex-e to see-non-dur. увидеть, dur-ve – видеть. Know – знать, узнать.

Stative verbs are verbs that show a state and not an action.

You can group verbs that show a state in the following ways:-

Verbs that show thought - know, believe, undertand Verbs that show possession - have, own, want, contain Verbs that show senses - hear, see, smell etc. Verbs that show emotion - love, hate, want, need etc.

There are regular and irregular stative verbs. But when they are used to show a state they do not take the -ing form.

For Example: I like ice cream. (Never "I am liking...")

However, some verbs can be used to show an action or a state.

For Example:I think English is easy. = It is my opinion. I'm thinking of joining a new course. = I am considering

26)A clause is a part of a sentence. An independent clause is a complete sentence; it contains a subject and verb &expresses a complete thought in both context and meaning. can be joined by a coordinating conjunction(and,but,for,or,nor,so,yet) The door opened&the man walked in. A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence; it contains a subject and verb but doesn’t exp. a complete thought. They can make sense on their own, but, they’re dependent on the rest of the sentence for context&meaning. They’re usually joined to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.Dep.clauses often begin with a a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun (after ,although,as, because, before,even if, even though, if ,in order that ,provided that ,

rather than, since, that,which,who,whose(The door opened because the man pushed it.) Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival. Noun clauses answer questions like "who(m)?" or "what?"( I wondered whether the homework was necessary.) Adverb clauses answer questions like "when?", "where?", "why?"( Before they go to the airport, they will visit you.) after | although | as | because | before | if | since | that | though | till | unless | until | when | where | while of time,cause,purpose,condition,concession,result,manner,comparison Polysemantic(as he spoke there was a ring at the bell-time,as the morning was fine…-cause,the dog did as he was ordered-manner,it was a long time since..-time,since the lunchroom was full,she had come..-cause Parenthetical cl.-I’m afraid,as they say,I think

26) Sub-te clauses can be:1) noun clauseL suppose that he’ll be back in an hour.2)relative I saw a man who stole your ring.(they are introduced by 1)relative pronouns:who,whom,whose,which,thator2)rel adverbs: when,where,why.)3)adverbial:clauses of manner can be introduced by as if , as though(after act, appear, be, behave),as, how, in the way(that), the way in which, in the same way(as). We use were instead was.She sounded as if she had a cold(probability). She acts as if she knew everything(unreal). Of time are int-ce by after,as, as long as, as soon as, before, by the time, every time, just as, once,till,until. I’ll cook dinner as soon as I’ve finished washing up. She had left by the time he arrived. Of place are in-ce by where, wherever, everywhere,anywhere. Sch’ll follow him wherever he goes. Everywhere I looked people were dancing. Of reason are in-ce by as, because, on the grounds that, the reason for, the reason why. As they had no money to buy a tickets they stayed at home. Because of the rain we couldn’t get to work. Of result are in-ce by that(after such,so), as a result, so, as a consequence, consequently,such+ singular countable noun,such+uncoun n,such+a lot of+n,so+ad-b,adj,so+few,little,many,mush+n. He is such a rude person. He had so much luggage that he couldn’t carry it. Of purpose to/in order to/so as to+inf, so that+can, could, with a view to/with the aim of+ing form, for+noun/ing form,in case. She is studying to be a doctor. I’ll phone him in case he’s forgotten to came. Negative purpose: so as not/in order not+to inf, so that+ can’tcouldn’t, for fear+should, for fear of sth/doing sth, prevent+noun+from, avoid+ing. He took a map to avoid getting lost. Of concession although/even though/though+clause, despite/in spite of+noun/ing, despite/in spite of the fact+that cl-se, while/whereas/but/yet/nevertheless/however+cl-se, however/no matter how+adj/adv+sub+verb, abj/adv+though+sub+verb, adj/adv+as+sub+verb. Slim as she is she eats a lot. Despite his illness he went to the party.

№29.Adverb

Adverb – is a part of speech which expresses some circumst. that attend an action or state or points out some character. Features of an action or a quality

Structure:

1)simple(long, enough, then, threr…)

2)derivative(slowly, forward…& with ly, ward, long, wise)

3)compound(anyhow, sometimes, nowhere…)

4)composite(at once, at least…)

Degree of comparison:

1)monosyllable adv. + er & est

2)ending ly + more & most

3)irregular forms: well-better-best; badly- worse-worst;much-more-most; little-less- least

Classification(по каушанской):

1)adv of time(today, tomorrow…)

2)of place & direction( here, there, inside…)

3)of cause & consequence( therefore, consequently…)

4)of repetition & frequency(often, seldom, ever…)

5)of manner(kindly, quickly…)

6)of degree, measure, quantity(very, enough, too, little…)

Place of adverbin the sent.(крылова):

1)at the head of a sent.

2)between subj & predict.

3)before the verb the adv modif

4)at the end of the sent

Adv of frequency-position 2, adv of time-position 2,4

If adv of frequency appears in other position, it’s made to emphasis smth(e.g. he usually comes early(normal), Usually he comes early(emph.)

Adv of place & direction-position 4

Adv of manner – position 4, after predict(they welcomed us wormly); occasionally found in position 2(she had deeply hurt him);occasionally in position 1

In this case adv modif not only predict, but also subj(anxiously she watched the butterfly(= she felt anxious, when she watched the butterfly)

Adv of degree – position 3; adv of degree(intensifiers), if they modify verb-position 4

Twenty most popular adv with ly and without:

Late, hard, most, last, wide, sharp,near,close,fine,high,clean,pretty,low,deep,clear,recent,terrible, bad, careful, serious

Lately, hardly, mostly, lastly(наконец), widely(в большей степени), sharply(пронзительно), nearly, closely, finely, highly(весьма, очень), cleanly, prettily(прелестно), lowly(скромно), deeply, clearly(очевидно), recently, terribly, badly, carefully, seriously

30) most+adj: the+most+superl-ve degree of adj.I’m the most beautiful. A+most – a high degree of a quality is meant. Jane found that the old maid had been a most devoted daughter and sister. Most+of+noun- definite people of things most of the flowers in the garden were planted by parents.few meas ‘мало’ it has negative meaning. A few means ‘несколько’- positive m-ng.(count.nouns) Не is good, there are few like him in the world. He left after a few moments.little – ‘мало’ negative m-g. A little – ‘некоторое количество ’ positive m-g.there is too little snow today. We have a little time to read a book.two-‘два’, the two -‘оба’:two students entered the room.The two friends traveled together.Another-1)к-л другой give me another pen.2)ещё один I’d like another cup of tea.the other- ‘определённый другой’there are two books here, take one and I’ll take the other.Nouns modified by the adj. last are used with the def-te art-le except last year,month,week, summer,winter,spring,autumn.It was the last sweet. Last summer I went to South. Next ‘будущий’ the newt’следующий’ Next week we’ll go for a walk. Enter the next room please. A number ‘many,много ряд’ His father and a number of his friends were in the room.the number ‘число, количество’ the numder of mistakes here made is stupid.Omission of the articles. The art-e is often omitted in newspaper headings, telegrams, in stage directions.

30.The use of articles modified by adjectives, pronouns, numerals

Most

1. Most +adj.

“the” is used when most serves to form the superlative degree of an adj.

He’s the most experienced doctor I know

“a” is used when most is an adverb of degree(крайне,чрезвычайно), so the whole combination is a descriptive attribute and most is unstressed here

He’s a most experienced doctor

Occasionally the form of the superlative degree does not express comparison, but a high degree or quality

He listened with the most profound attention-Он слушал с глубочайшим вниманием

2. Most + of+ noun

When definite people or things are meant the noun is used with the definite article

Most of the flowers in the garden were planted by the schoolchildren

We say just most, when we do not mean definite people or things. The noun is used in general sense

Most flowers smell sweet

Few, a few, the few; little, a little, the little

Few-мало

a few-несколько

the few-те немногие, которые

little-мало

a little-некоторое количество

the little-небольшое количество,которое

two…

Two--два

The two-оба, те два

The second, a second…

The second is an ordinal number meaning второй

The second attempt proved more successful than the first

A second means ‘another, one more’

Having eaten the soup, he asked for a second portion

Set phrases

A first night-премьера

A first prize

A second time-one more

Another/the other

Another-какой-либо другой

- ещё один

- не такой, иной

The other - определённый другой. ‘The’ is used with a plural noun modified by other is a definite number of objects divided into two definite groups

№31

The infin. is a plain verb stem which is usually preceded by the unstressed particle to.Bare inf.is used

1.After aux. verbs

2.After modal v. except *ought,dare,need*

3.After v. of sense pers.(I felt my heart jump).But!*to be*(I felt this to be very true)

4.After *let*

5.After *make,have*

6.After *know*=see,observe(замечать)

But!after *hear,see,make,know*in Passive-*to*

7.After *bid*(предлагать)

8.After *had better,would rather/sooner,can’t but,can’t choose but*

9.In sent. beginning with *why*(Why not come & talk to her)

10.Sometimes after *help*

11.After *than* in comparisons

Вопрос№27.The Passive Voice.

The Passive Voice serves to show that the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence is not the agent (the doer) of the action expressed by the predicate verb but the object of this action. The subject of a passive verb does not act but is acted upon, it undergoes an action.

The Passive Voice is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required finite form and the participle of the notional verb

Note. The Passive Voice may also be formed by means of the auxiliary verb to get and the participle of the notional verb.

The boy got hurt on his way home.

the Present Indefinite — is (am, are) done the Past Indefinite — was (were) done the Future Indefinite — will (shall) be done the Present Perfect — has (have) been done the Past Perfect — had been done

the Future Perfect — will (shall) have been done the Present Continuous — is (am, are) being done the Past Continuous — was (were) being done The Passive Voice lacks the Future Continuous, the Future Continuous-in-the-Past and all the Perfect Continuous forms.

Terminative verbs denote an action implying a certain limit beyond it cannot go.(to come- приходить, прийти, to bring, to built, to give- давать, дать, to take, to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die- умереть, умирать, to become…).

Non-terminative verbs denote a certain action which does not imply any limit. (to live-жить, to exist- существовать, to sleep- спать, to love, to be, to have, to work, to speak, to hope, to sit…)

Some verbs (to see, to hear, to write, to read, to translate) in certain contexts have terminative meaning & in others a non-terminative.

I saw a fallen star in the sky.

I don’t believe in fairies. I never see any.

With durative verbs the use of the Indefinite Passive tenses is parallel to the corresponding active forms.

But with terminative verbs the grammatical meaning of the Indefinite passive forms is wider than that of the corresponding active forms. They may denote either an action or a state resulting from a previously accomplished action ("a resultant state").

Action

Everything was settled twenty

minutes after I arrived there.

State

So that's all settled.

We use the Passive:

1)when the person who carries out the action is unknown, unimportant or obvious from the context

My flat was broken into last week.

2)when the action itself is more important than the person, who carries it out(news, headlines, advertisements)

3)when we refer to an unpleasant event & we don’t want to say who is to blame

A lot of mistakes have been made.

4) constructions with formal ‘it’ as subject may also contain the passive of verbs denoting mental and physical perceptions, suggestion, order, request and decision as well as of verbs of saying, such as to agree, to announce, to arrange, to believe, to decide, to demand, to determine, to expect, to explain, to feel, to know, to notice, to observe, to propose, to recommend, to report, to require, to request, to rumor, to say, to suggest, to think, to understand and the like.

The Indirect Passive is also found with set phrases containing the verb to give (occasionally to grant) followed by a noun, e.g. to give a chance, to give a choice, to give a job, to give an explanation,to give an opportunity, to give a party, to give a post, to give a sentence, to give a task, to give First Aid, to give news, to give notice, to give orders, to give prominence, to give shelter, to grant an audience, to grant leave and the like.

The Prepositional Passive is found in English with:

(1)verbs of speaking such as to comment on, to speak about (of, to), to talk about (of), to write about,

You have been a good deal talked about.

(2)the verb to look in different meanings with various prepo- sitions, such as to look at (to, upon, after, for, into),

The suit-cases were looked after.

(3)verbs expressing mockery or blame, such as to frown at, to laugh at, to mock at, to shout at, to sneer at, to spit at, to swear at, to whistle at,

e.g. She had an uncomfortable feeling that she was being laughed at.

(4)also a miscellaneous group of verbs including to account for, to approve of, to ask for, to call for, to deal with, to depend on, to disapprove of, to dispose of, to rely on, to send for, to think of, and a few others,

Her request was disapproved of.

The verbal phraseological units can be used in PV:to find fault with, lose sight of, make fun of, make use of, pay attention to, put an end to, take notice to,take care of. There are cases when the sub-t oa the pass. predicate correspond to the Rus adverbial modifier – intransitive v. to live to see +in:This bed was not slept in.The room is not lived in.

some sen-es are rendered in Rus by indefinite-personal sen-es(неопред.лич-е)не was granted ten days leave. Ему дали 10дневный отпуск.

Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.

-Быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога (was made – был сделан)

--ся (are built - строятся)

-Indefinite – personal constructions – неопределенно-личные предложения (Дома строят из камня- Houses are built of stone.)

#32 Perfect tenses.

We use both the present perfect continuous and the present perfect to talk about something that

started in the past and which affects the situation that exists now. The difference is that the

present perfect continuous focuses on the activity or event which may or may not be finished. The

present perfect, however, focuses on the effect of the activity or event, or the fact that something

has been achieved:. I've followed their discussions with great interest.

I've been following their discussions with great interest.

We can use either the present perfect continuous or the present perfect to talk about activities or

events that are repeated again and again until now:

Joseph has been kicking a football against the wall all afternoon, (or ...has kicked...)

We use the present perfect rather than the present perfect continuous when we talk about long lasting

or permanent situations, or when we want to emphasise that we are talking about the

whole of a period of time until the present: I have always admired Chester's work.

They are the most delicious oranges I've ever eaten.

We use the past perfect continuous when we talk about the continuity or duration of a situation

or activity, and the past perfect to talk about the completion of a situation or activity or its effects:

I'd been working hard, so I felt that I deserved a holiday, (emphasises the activity)

I'd worked hard, and the report was now finished, (emphasises the result)

If we talk about how long something went on up to a particular past time, we prefer the past

perfect continuous. If we talk about how many times something happened in a period up to a

particular past time, we use the past perfect: They had been travelling for about 36 hours.I'd heard the symphony many times before.

However, some verbs that describe states are not often used with continuous tenses,

and we use the past perfect with these even when we are talking about how long something went

on up to a particular past time: I had always believed that it would be easy to get a job.

We use Future Perf.to denote the actions which will be finished before a stated future time: She will have come back by the end of July. And Fut.Perf.Cont. to denote duration of an action up to a certain time in the future: By the end of this year she will have been working here for 2 years.

Past Perf.<->Past Ind.We use the past perfect to talk about a past situation or activity that took place before another past situation or activity, or before a particular time in the past: Jo discovered that Leslie had lied to her. We use the past simple rather than the past perfect when we simply talk about a single activity or event in the past: I handed the letter to him

We use the past perfect when we say what we wanted or hoped (expect (to), mean (to), think (about + -ing).etc.) to do, but didn't: I had wanted to visit the gallery before I left Florence, but it's closed on Sundays. When we use a time expression (e.g. after, as soon as, before, by the time (that), when) to say that one event happened after another, we use either the past simple or past perfect for the event that

happened first and the past simple for the event that happened second: After Ivan (had) finished reading, he put out the light. With already and just (= a very short time before) we use the past perfect, not the past simple: The film had already begun by the time we got to the cinema.

№31.The use of the bare infinitive

In Modern English the infinitive is chiefly used with the particle ‘to’. In Old English ‘to’ was a preposition used with the infinitive in the dative case to indicate purpose. Later on ‘to’ was re-interpreted as the formal sign of the infinitive and came to be used not only to denote purpose but in other cases as well. Still there are cases when the so-called bare infinitive’s used. They are as follows:

1. after auxiliary verbs

I don’t understand the meaning of this passage

2. After modal verbs except the verb ‘ought to’, ‘have to’, to be to’

If one cannot have what one loves, one must love what one has

3. After ‘dare’ and ‘need’ (in negative sentences), although a to-infinitive is also possible with no change in meaning.

I didn’t dare (to) say what I really thought

I don’t think you need (to) rewrite the essay

Note that ‘need’ can’t be followed by to-infinitive when used as a modal in questions

Need you be so offensive?

We use ’dare’ in the common phrases ‘I dare say’ meaning ‘I suppose it’s true’ and ‘How dare you’ said to show you feel offended

How dare you talk to me in that tone of voice?

4. After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, see, feel, notice, watch, observe

I felt my heart jump

I never saw you look so before

But! After the verb ’to feel’ the verb ‘to be’ is used with ‘to’:I felt this to be very true

After to see- ‘understand’ and to hear –‘to learn’ a clause is used

After to see, to notice a clause is used with the verb ‘to be’:He saw that he was pale

5. We use the imperative ‘let’s’ (Let us) +bare infinitive for making suggestions

Let’s take a taxi!

6. Let as a full verb (=allow) is always followed by a noun or pronoun+ bare infinitive

Don’t let the children annoy you!

7. After verbs of compulsion-‘to make’ –‘заставлять’ and the verb ‘to have’-‘заставлять, допускать, велеть’

What makes you think so?

I had them take my luggage

The verb ‘to have’ – допускать, is chiefly used after the modal verbs ‘will’ and ‘would’ in negative sentences

I wouldn’t have you think that I’ selfish

8. After the verb ‘to know’ when its meaning approaches that of ‘to see’, ‘to observe’ (never in the Pr. Indefinite)

I have so often known a change of medicines work wonders (я так часто замечала…)

However, the particle ‘to’ is sometimes used

I have never known her to weep before (я никогда раньше не видела, чтобы она плакала)

But! After the verbs ‘to hear’, ‘to see’, ‘to make’, and ‘to know’ in the Passive Voice the to-infinitive is used

He was heard to mention your name several times

The child was made to obey

9. We may use a bare infinitive or a to-infinitive after a few verbs like ‘help’ and ‘know’. The use of a to-infinitive is more formal.

Mother helped me (to) do my homework

We don’t usually omit ‘to’ after ‘not’

How can I help my children not to worry about their exams?

We sometimes use ‘help’ without a noun/pronoun object:Everyone in the village helped (to) build the new Youth Centre

We have a noun/pronoun object after ‘know’

I’ve never known her (to) be late before

10. After the verb ‘to bid’ (obsolete, not used in the colloquial speech):I bowed and waited, thinking she should bid me take a seat (…, что она предложит мне сесть)

11. After the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, cannot but, nothing but, cannot choose but:There was nothing left for him to do but watch and wait.I cannot but think so

12. in sentences of special type beginning with why

Why not come and talk to her yourself?

13. When there is a series of infinitives after a verb

I’d like to come and see you

14. After than in comparisons

The particle ‘to’ is often used without the infinitive if it is easily understood from the context

Three men could not defend Rollingen even if they wanted to

The particle ’to’ may be separated from the infinitive by an adverb; this is so-called split infinitive. It’s hardly ever used in colloquial English

He was unable, however, to long keep silence

33)There-when talk about sth for the 1st time(there’s a new bar)It-a partic.thing place, fact(we went ot a new restaurant.it’s very good)There means ‘to\at\in that place(I went there)there will be,must be,used to be(there’s a light on,there must be sbody at home)there is sure\certain\likely to be sth( a flight to paris)It about distance,time&weather(it’s a long way from here to…,it was windy-there was a cold wind)Like=’similar to’’the same as’(house’s like a palace)like sbody doing smth(it sounds like a baby crying)like=’for ex.’(some sports,like(such as) motor racing,can be dangerous)AS-before a subj+ verb(they did as they promised)as you know\i said\she expected\i thought(as you know,I …)As usual\always As=’in the position of’’in the form of’(I worked as a bus driver)Like a manager(similar to the manager)Regard…as (I regard her as my best friend)As=because

Вопрос №34. Subjunctive Mood. The Use of Subjunctive Mood in different types of adverbial (try to cite no less than 10 cases).

Mood – a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.

The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as smth imaginary or desired.

Is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts.

2 forms: synthetic, analytical.

▪Synthetic –

●present subj. of all verbs (no ending -s): poetry, elevated prose, scientific l-ge; colloquial l-ge.

Set Expressions: Be it so! Far be it from me… God forbid!

● past subj. of ‘to be’(were for all persons): adv. clauses of condition, an unreal condition- Pr, Fut(If I were…); subord. Clauses – an action simult/prior with the action in the princ. Clause – Pr, Past(I wished he were less categoric)

▪ Analytical forms consists of the mood aux. should, would, may(might), shall + inf. of the notional verb

Whoever you may be, I am grateful for you.

a)Adverbial clause of purpose.

Conj: that, so that, in order that

May, might – pr,fut

Might – past

He got up cautiously so that he might not wake the baby.

Lest(чтобы не)- should(* also in neg. sent)

She opened the window lest it should be stuffy in the room.

b)Adverbial clause of concession

Conj & connectives: though, although, however, no matter,whatever

Generally – may, might

Though he may(might)be tired he will go to the concert.

Action in sub.clause PRIOR- the Perf. Inf

However badly he may have behaved to you in the past he is still your brother.

c)Adverbial clause of time & place

Conj: whenever, wherever

May,Might

Additional concessive meaning.

Whenever you may (might) come you are welcome.

d)Adverbial close of comparison (or manner)

Conj: as if, as though

SIMULTANEOUS action – Past Subj of ‘to be’; Past Ind Indic Mood of other v.

She speaks about him as if she knew him well.

PRIOR action – Past Perf Ind Mood

She speaks about him as if she had known him for years

35.Word order.Affirmative:the subj.+the predicate+objects+adverbial modifiers(She sent him a message at 6o’clock yesterday)Questions:in most of them the inv-n is partial(part of the predicate is placed bef.the subj.:the auxiliary or modal verb)The quest-word is placed at the beg.of the sent-ce:Where did they find her? The whole predicate is placed bef.the subj.when it is expr-d by to be or to have:Is he at home? When the interrog.word is the subj.of the sent-ce or an attribute to the subj.-no inv-n:What photos are lying on the table?Negations:subj.+auxiliary with part-le not+objects+adverbial modifiers (She didn’t send him a message at 6o’clock yesterday)Inversion:interrog,;s-ces introduced by there(There is nothing strange here);after so,such,to such a degree(in result clauses)at the beg.of a sent-ce(so short is she that she can’treach the shelf);after as,neither/nor,so to expr.agreement(I like it-So do I);in condit-s when should,were,had(past.perf)are placed at the beg-g of the sent-ce(were I you,I would see him);exclam-ry sent-ces expr-g wish(Be it so!); after cert.expr-s when they are placed at the beg-g of a sent-ce:barely,hardly(ever)…when,In no way,In no circumstances,Little,Never(before),No sooner…than,Not even once,Not only but also,Not since,Not till,Nowhere,Only by,Only in this way,Rarely,Seldom(Seldom do we see him these days).We use inv-n in the main clause when there are only (after,by,if,when), not (since, till/untill) at the beg-g(Only when she came did he laughed)We invert the subj. and the main verb after adverbs of place(Here comes Ann)and in direct speech after the quote(‘How nice’said Mary)

36Should may be comb-d with the Perf.inf. In this case the meaning of the comb-n depends on whether the sent-ce is affirm. or neg. In an affirm. Sent-ce should+Perf inf indicates that a desirable action was not carried out.:He looks very ill. He should have stayed at home.In a neg. sent-ce should+Per.inf. serves toshow that an undesirable action was carried out.:They shouldn't have concealed it from us.The past tense of the verb to be to in comb-n with thePerf. Inf. denotes an unfulfilled plan:I promised to go to a club with her last Tuesday, and I really forgot all about it. We were to have played a duet together.Must in comb-n with the Perf. Inf. refers the action to the past.:He must have finished his work.Both could and might comb-d with the Perf. Inf. indicate that the action was not carried out in the past:He might(could) have found the book at the library.Might expresses unreality only in comb-n with the Perf. Inf.:You might have let me know about it beforehand. Might followed by the Perf. Inf. indicates that the action was not carried out owing to certain circumst-s (expr. in the sent-ce or implied):Luckily he wasn't driving the car. He might have been hurt.The comb-n of may with the Perf. Inf. may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued to the mom.of speaking. This is usually found with stative verbs:He may have been at home for about two hours. The comb-n of can with the perf. inf may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued to the mom. of speaking. This is us-ly found with stative verbs:Can she really have been at home all this time?Neednt+perf.inf-the meaning-absence of necessity-he needn’t have got up so early.

№37.The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relation between object&phenomena.as to theur morphological structure prep. Fall under the following groups 1)simple(in,on,at,with) 2)derivative(behind,below,along) 3)compound(inside,without) 4)composite(because of,in front of). According to their meaning prepos-n may be devided into prep-s of place&direction(in,on,below,under,between) 2)time(after,before,at) 3)abstract relations(by,with,because of). The lexical meaning of some prep-s is quite concrete(in,between) while that of some other may be weakened to a great extent(to,by,of). Some prep-s(on,in,by,over,off,up) are homonymous with postpositions.A prep-n as well as post-n doesn’t perform any independent func-n in the sentence.but while a prepo-n denotes the relation between object&phenomena,a postposition is a part of a composite verb.a prep-n is not usually stressed while a postpos-n usually bears the stress.(you should give up smoking).

№38

The inf. and the ing-form have the same lexical meaning as the finite forms of the corresponding verb.

1)The inf. and the ing-form lack the forms of person and number characteristic of the finite forms.

2)Mood can be expressed only by the finite forms.

3) the inf. and the ing-form have act. and pass. forms, e.g. to take — to be taken, taking — be ing taken.

4)the inf. and the ing-form can express time, e.g. to take — to have taken, taking — having taken. The inf. tends to express an action following that of the predicate verb (He felt a quick impulse to call the boy back.), but it may also denote an action simultaneous with it (She was admiring his ability to concentrate on any task). the simple form of the inf. doesn’t often express an action that precedes the action of the predicate verb. The ing-form tends to express actions simult. with that of the predicate verb (Henry sat at his study table, drawing cats on the blotter). But it is also extensively used to express priority (I remembered hearing my aunt telling me in my childhood that great men never cared for flattery.) and an action following that of the predicate verb (She insisted on coming with me). The perf. Inf. is more or less frequent after verbs of mental perception, the verbs to seem, to happen, to appear and a few others. It shows that the action took place before the action of the predicate verb. (Their marriage was supposed to have been a very happy one.)

5)Inf. is used with *to* or without.Split inf.-*to+adverb+verb*( She was the first person to ever understand me, Frank.)

6)Inf. may be used as part of a phrase introduced by the conjunctive pronouns or ad- verbs what, who, whom, which, when, where, whether, how.( I didn't know what to say.)

7)gerund may be preceded by a preposition.

8) The ing-form has another peculiarity: it may lose its verbal character and become adjectivized.(They found his ideas very upsetting.) Adjectivized ing-forms may be preceded by adv. of degree, such as very, rather, most, quite., how, so,so ... as.

9)after *be afraid,hate,like,love,prefer,forbid,allow,advise,recommend,encourage*Inf.-with reference to a special occasion(let’s go to the cinema tonight.-no,I prefer to stay at home.)Gerund-with reference to a general occasion(I prefer staying at home to going to the cinema)

10)After *remember,foreget,regret,recollect*inf-to the fut.(don’t forget to bring money).gerund-to the Past(Do u remember our first meeting)

11)After *stop*.inf-adverb.modifier of purpose(stop to buy a newspaper),gerund-part of compound verb. aspect predicate(she stopped wearing make up)

40)Inf.constractions:1.the Obj.-with-the-inf.,2.the subj.,3.the for-to-inf.1.-is a constr.in wh.the inf.is in predict.relations to a noun in the common c.or a pronoun in the obj.c.-used after v.den.sense perception-hear,see,watch(I haven’t heard anyone call me)mental activity-know,think,find(everybody expected her to marry Pete)v.of declaring-pronounce,declare,report(she declared him to be the most disobedient child in the existence)wish,intention-want,mean,choose(I want you to come&dine with me)feeling,emotion-like,love,hate(I dislike you to talk like that)order,permission-allow,have,suffer(if the object den.a lifeless thing or inf.is passive)-I won’t have you speak like it-compultion-make-заставлять,get-добиваться,(the noise caused her to awake)Subj.-inf. is in pred.rel.to a noun in the common c.or a pron.in nom.c.(she is said to resemble me)For-to-in pr.rel.to n.or pron.preceded by the prep.for(that was for him to find out)

#39 The number of the noun

Number-is the form of the noun which shows whether 1 or more than 1 object is meant. Some nouns may have the sg. & the pl.forms. other nouns are used either only in the sg.(freedom,milk) or only in the pl.(goods,billiards).

Plural forms:

-The general rule for forming the pl.forms of English nouns is by adding the ending –s(-es)to the sg.:horse-horses;bed-beds

-if the noun ends in –s,-ss,-x,-sh,-ch,-tch the pl.is formed by ad.-es:bus-buses

-//-//-ends in –y preceeded by the cons-t, y—into i: fly-flies into vowel-y+s:day-days

- in proper names---adding –s: Mary(-s)

-ending o preceeded by cons. + -es:cargo (es)

A Few + -s: piano(s),solo,photo

A few both –s/-es: mosquito(s/es)

- 12 nouns ending in –f,-fe drop the f/fe & add ves: calf,half,knife,leaf,life,loaf,self,sheaf,shelf,thief,wife,wolf

- the nouns hoof,scarf,wharf take -s/-ves

-other words + -s:cliff-cliffs,handkerchief,safe

- a few nouns change their vowel:foot-feet, goose-geese, but: children,oxen

-initials --+s: MPs,VIPs,UFOs

- compound nouns : - last word in pl.: boy-friends, break ins - man,woman---:men(women) drivers

the 1^st word---pl. when formed of verb+er: runners up, hangers on;- noun+preposition+noun: sisters-in-law,ladies-in-waiting,wards of court

-Greek or Latin origin: crisis-crises;phenomenon-phenomena, radius-radii; but some fol.engl.rules:dogma-dogmas,formula(s),gymnasium(s); some—orig.forms/-s:libretto(s)-libretti,tempo

Form of the verb: Singularia Tantum: -all names of materials(iron,tea,chalk,oil,wine,cheese)

-nouns denoting abstract notions(generosity,love,hate,fun,poetry,excitement)

-words end.in –ics: athletics,ethics,mathematics,physics,politics: but names of sciences—sg.form

-plural in form, but sg. In meaning: news, deseases(mumps,shingles), games(darts,billiards,bowls) Pluralia tantum Alw.pl:arms(weapons)earnings,goods,outskirts,riches,savings,surroundings,grounds,pains(trouble),thanks,troops,oats,goings on,proceedings etc.

-articles of dress consisting of 2 parts(trousers,pants,pyjamas)

-tools,instruments consist.of 2parts (binoculars,glasses,scales)

-names of some games(billiards,cards,dominoes)

Sg/Pl-collective nouns(family,crew,team,army,audience,Parliament,public,herd,minority)

---sg(single group,unit)/pl form(number of individuals)

-a few words:people,police,cattle-usually pl.

#42Parenthesis

It`s an independent element of the sentence. It either shows the speaker`s attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence or connects a given sentence with another one, or summarizes that which is said in the sentence. A parenthesis is connected with the rest of the sentence rather semantically than grammatically. No question can be put to it. Very often it is detached from the rest of the sentence and it is often separated from it by commas or dashes.

Unfortunately, it will be you who will explain that to him.

A parenthesis can be expressed by:

1.Modal words such as indeed, certainly, decidedly, in fact, truly, naturally, surely, actually, possibly, perhaps, obviously maybe…

Evidently, he was not a man, he must be some other kind of animal.

2.Adverbs which to a certain extent serve as connectives, such as firstly, secondly, finally, thus, then, anyway, moreover, besides, still, yet…

Besides, uncle Soames wants to get back, I suppose.

3.Prepositional phrases such as in a word, in truth, in my opinion, in short, on the one hand, on the contrary, at least…

By the way, Harry, I have often meant to ask you: is she your mother`s sister or your father`s?

4.Infinitive and participial phrases, such as to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with, generally speaking , strictly speaking…

To tell the truth, I don’t want to go there.

Вопрос № 41. The Imperative, Indicative, Subjunctive Moods in Modern English. The Basic Model of Subjunctive Mood. Communicative types of meanings conveyed by the Subjunctive Mood forms.

Mood – a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.

1.Indicative Mood

2.Imperative Mood

3.Subjunctive Mood

Indicative Mood

▪ shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a fact.

We went home early in the evening.

▪is also used to express a real condition

If it rains I’ll stay at home.

Imperative Mood expresses commands & requests. (inf without to, is used in 2^nd person)

Be quiet!

‘-’ – to do + not+ bare inf

Don’t listen to him!

More emphatic request

Do listen to him!

Generally addressed to the 2^nd person.

May be preceded by ‘you’

You don’t worry.

May be addressed to the 3d person with the help of the verb ‘to let’

Let the child go home at once.

With the 1^st person pl – an invitation to a joint action

Let’s go home.

Passive form of imperative – get + Part II

Get vaccinated as soon as you can.

Tag ?- will you, shall we(let’s)

Adverb: always, never + Imp.Mood

Always remember what I told you.

Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as smth imaginary or desired.

Is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts.

2 forms: synthetic, analytical.

▪Synthetic –

●present subj. of all verbs (no ending -s): poetry, elevated prose, scientific l-ge; colloquial l-ge.

Set Expressions: Be it so! Far be it from me… God forbid!

● past subj. of ‘to be’(were for all persons): adv. clauses of condition, an unreal condition- Pr, Fut(If I were…); subord. Clauses – an action simult/prior with the action in the princ. Clause – Pr, Past(I wished he were less categoric)

▪ Analytical forms consists of the mood aux. should, would, may(might), shall + inf. of the notional verb

Whoever you may be, I am grateful for you.

The Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Simple sentences.

Literary style.

*To express wish(also with may)

‘Long live the Soviet army!’

‘May success attend you’

*To express an unreal wish

If only I were free!

*In oats & imprecations (colloquial style)

Manners be hanged!

*In set expressions:

Be it so!

Far be it from me…

God forbid!