Eschatology

Eschatology is barely mentioned in the Guide, although Maimonides developed it fully in other works. Following traditional Jewish teachings, he deals with the Messiah and messianic times, the resurrection of the dead, and olam ha-ba ("the world to come"). He proceeds characteristically by stripping these occurrences of supernatural qualities as much as possible. The Messiah is an earthly king, descended from the house of David. He will bring the Jews back to their country, but his major accomplishment will be to bring peace and tranquility to the world, thereby facilitating full observance of God's commandments. The Messiah will die of old age and be succeeded by his son, the latter, by his son, and so on. No cataclysmic events will take place during messianic times, but the world will continue in its established natural order. Maimonides calculated the year of the coming of the Messiah ("Iggeret Teiman"), although he generally opposed speculations of this kind (Hakdamah le-Perek Chelek, principle 12, Yad, Melachim, 12:2—uncensored edition).

During Messianic times the dead will be resurrected with body and soul reunited though later they will die again. (For his affirmation of this doctrine in reply to criticism that he rejected it, see above.) Undoubtedly, the central notion of Maimonides' eschatology is his account of Olam Ha-Ba. In his view the intellect, but not the body, has an afterlife, and in that afterlife the intellect is engaged in the contemplation of God. Generally, he speaks of incorporeal intelligences (plural), implying that immortality is individual, but there are passages that suggest that immortality is collective, that is, in the world to come there exists only one intellect for all mankind (Hakdamah le-Perek Chelek, Yad, Teshuvah, 8–10, Guide 1:41, Treatise on Resurrection).

Basic Principles of Judaism

Maimonides' intellectualism is reflected in the formulation of 13 principles that in his view every member of the Jewish community is bound to accept (see Articles of Faith). Did he intend these principles as a means of developing the intellects of the masses, thus enabling them to share in Olam Ha-Ba, or as a political expedient, that is, to make the masses aware of intellectual issues so that philosophers can live safely in their midst? Proponents of both views are found among Maimonides' interpreters.

Influence of the Guide to the Perplexed

Maimonides' Guide, as has been noted, profoundly influenced the subsequent course of medieval Jewish philosophy. Among the extensive literature that arose were numerous full and partial commentaries on the Guide, most of them still unpublished. However, four of these have been printed and they appear many times with the Hebrew text of the Guide. They are those of Profiat Duran (Efodi), Shem Tov ben Joseph Ibn Shem Tov, Asher Crescas, and Isaac Abrabanel. In addition, the following commentaries have appeared in print: Moreh ha-Moreh by Shem Tov ibn Falaquera, which also contains corrections of Ibn Tibbon's Hebrew translation based on the Arabic original, Ammudei Kesef and Maskiyyot Kesef exoteric and esoteric commentaries respectively, by Joseph Kaspi, and a commentary by Moses Narboni (all three reprinted in Sheloshah Kadmonei Mefareshei ha-Moreh, 1961). Samuel ibn Tibbon composed a philosophic glossary on the Guide entitled Perush Me-Ha-Millot Ha-Zarot Asher Be-Ma'amarei Ha-Rav, which has also been printed many times. One aspect of the commentary literature is the attempt to reconcile Maimonides' views with the divergent ones of his contemporary Averroes. Of commentaries and notes that have appeared on the Guide in more recent times are those of Solomon Maimon's Givat ha-Moreh (edited by Samuel Hugo Bergman and N. Rotenstreich, 1966), the notes in S. Munk's French translation of the Guide, and the Hebrew commentary in Ibn Shmuel's edition.

In addition to its significance for medieval Jewish philosophy, the Guide also had a formative influence on modern Jewish thought. Maimonides provided a first acquaintance with philosophic speculation for a number of philosophers of the Enlightenment period and served as a bridge for the study of more modern philosophy. Moses Mendelssohn is a case in point. In addition, Maimonides became a symbol for their own philosophic endeavors, he had attempted to introduce the spirit of rationalism into Jewish teachings during medieval times, just as they tried to do in their own time. Among modern thinkers influenced in some way by Maimonides are, in addition to Mendelssohn and Solomon Maimon (1752–1800), Nahman Krochmal, Samuel David Luzatto (who opposed Maimonides' rationalism), S. L. Steinheim, Hermann Cohen, and Ahad Ha-Am.

Maimonides exercised an extensive influence on Christian scholastic thought. Among these scholastics are Alexander of Hales, William of Auvergne, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Meister Eckhart, and Duns Scotus. These scholastics generally quote Maimonides by name, but sometimes they cite his views anonymously. Giles of Rome composed a treatise entitled Errores philosophorum about 1270, the 12th chapter of which is devoted to a refutation of Maimonides' views. In early modern times Maimonides influenced the secular philosophers Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz.