§ 23. There are utterances which do not constitute sentences (non-sentence utterances). They are:

1. Vocatives.

Charles?

Mr West!

2. “Yes-no” utterances. These are mostly responses to “yes-no” questions.

Are you coming? - Yes/No.

3. Interjections.

Hi! (Hey!) Oh!

Dear me! - Боже мой!

Look here! - Послушай!

Well, I never! - Вот те на! Вот так так! Ну и ну!

Goodness gracious! - Боже мой! Господи! Вот те на!

4. Different conversational formulas.

Thanks.

Good-bye.

Bye-bye.

Negation

§ 24. Both structural and communicative types of sentences fall into affirmative sentences and negative sentences. A sentence is made negative by the particle not which is the most widely used negator. It is put immediately after the auxiliary or modal verb. The negator not has two forms: uncontracted and contracted. The former occurs mainly in formal English; the latter is usual in informal (conversational) English. There are two possible forms of negation contraction: one is when the operator is contracted and the negator uncontracted, and the other is when the negator is contracted but the operator is used in its full form.

Positive	Negative
	Uncontracted	Contracted
They’ve come.	They have not come.	They’ve not come. They haven’t come.
Tom is arriving tomorrow.	Tom is not arriving tomorrow.	Tom isn’t arriving tomorrow. Tom’s not arriving tomorrow. (The 1st form is more common.)
You ought to have come.	You ought not to have come at all.	You oughtn’t to have come at all.

Note that the contracted negative forms of can and will are can’t and won’t and the uncontracted negative of can is cannot. The corresponding forms of shall are shall not and shan’t.

He will be late. I can come early. I shall come early.

He will not be late. I cannot come early. I shall not come early

He’ll not be late. He won’t be late. I can’t come early. I shan’t come early.

Only the full negative form is possible for the first person singular of the verb to be in declarative sentences, I'т not late, the form ain’t being used only in dialects and uneducated forms of English. However, the verb contraction I'т is possible.

If the predicate verb is in the present or past indefinite, the auxiliary do is used with not to form the negative.

I like that idea. He understands you well.

I do not like that idea. He does not understand you at all.

I don’t like that idea. He doesn’t understand you at all.

As a rule, a sentence can contain only one negator. Not is usually , attached to the predicate verb, and other negative words are unnecessary in the sentence, unlike similar cases in Russian.

I don’t know anything about it. (one negator) I didn’t say anything to anybody. (one negator)

Я ничего не знала об этом. (two negators) Я никому ничего не сказала. (three negators)

In negative questions the place of the negator not depends on whether it is contracted or uncontracted. The contracted form n’t is not separated from the auxiliary or modal verb, whereas the uncontracted not comes after the subject. The latter is more formal.

Don’t you see? Can’t you come with me? Haven’t you finished your letter?

Do you not see? Can you not come with me? Have you not finished your letter?

Negative questions are often used as

a) exclamations.

Isn’t it funny! (= It is very funny!)

Aren’t* I tired! (= I am very tired)

* This is the first-person form of the verb to be in negative questions in British English.

b) invitations.

Won’t you come in and have a cup of tea?

In answer to negative questions yes and no are used according to the facts and not according to the form of the question.

Haven’t you seen the film? - Yes (I have seen it). Or: No (I haven’t seen it).

Isn’t it raining? - Yes (it is raining). Or: No (it isn’t raining).

Compare with the Russian:

Дождь не идет?

- Нет, идет. - Да, не идет.

In imperative sentences not follows the do-auxiliary.

Do not speak so loudly.

Don’t worry.

The same is used for the negative imperative with the verb to be.

Don’t be so rude.

Don’t be lazy.