III. Semantic changes and their causes.

1.Specialization, or narrowing of meaning

e.g. garage – a safe place

meat – any food

2.Generalization, or widening of meaning

e.g. ready (in O.E. – ready for a ride, now – ready for any activity)

arrive – to land at a shore

3.Elevation of meaning (getting better, going higher)

e.g. queen (in O.E. – woman)

knight (in O.E. – young servant).

4.Degradation of meaning (getting worse, lower)

e.g. a spinster – a woman that spins wool

idiot – a private person

5. Transference of meaning. The name of one thing is used to name some other things.

Transference is further subdivided into metaphor, metonymy and euphemism.

1. Transference of meaning based on likeness is called a metaphor. Metaphors can be based on likeness of form ( a head of cabbage), of position (the foot of the mountain), function (Head of the Department), size, quantity (ocean of troubles, storm of applause),etc. Sometimes a combination of several features makes up the foundation for a metaphor (a leg of a table – function, position, shape). Metaphors may involve transition from proper names to common ones, e.g. a Don Juan, Apollo, Vandals, Hooligans.

2. Transference of meaning based on associations of contiguity (being together) is called metonymy. We can use the name of a container for the thing it contains (Will you have another cup?), instrument for the agent (His pen knows no compromise), the place for the people who live or work there ( Kharkiv greets the guests. The Kremlin agrees to the treaty), the name of a person for the things s/he made (He reads Byron), the name of a part for the whole (Who’s the moustache?)

3. Transference of meaning dictated by social conventions, norms, rules of behavior. A word or a word combination is used instead of the other word that is offensive, rude, or taboo.

e.g. to die: to perish, to pass away, to join the silent majority, to meet one’s maker, to be with the angels, to cross the Great Divide, etc.

toilet: WC, bathroom, the necessary facilities, powder room, ladies/ gents, public conveniences, cloakroom, throne room, porcelain collection, Windsor Castle, etc.

Causes of semantic changes may include linguistic and extra-linguistic ones.

The latter are connected with social, political, economic, cultural and scientific development.

e.g. computer, space, feedback, bikini, villain, boor, etc.

The former embrace differentiation of synonyms (e.g. time and tide), borrowings (hound and dog), preserving the old meaning in idioms (love token, token of respect), etc.

LECTURE 2.

PHRASEOLOGY

1. Set expressions, their features and origin.

2. Classification of phraseological units.

1. Set expressions, their features and origin.

Set expressions are stable ready-made units with fixed integrate structure. They are contrasted to free phrases and semi-fixed combinations. A free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other element, e.g. to go early: to work, get up, move, etc. early: to go late, quickly, down, etc.

In semi-fixed combinations there are some boundaries for the substitution, e.g. go to school (market, college, court, etc.) is used only with nouns of places where definite actions are performed.

Features that make set expressions stable:

1. euphonic;

2. imaginative;

3. connotative.

Euphonic: rhythm, rhyme, alliteration,e.g. safe and sound, stuff and nonsense, by hook or by crook.

Semantic stylistic features: simile, contrast, metaphor, synonymy, antonymy, e.g. as like as two peas, as old as hills, more or less, from beginning to end, a lame duck, arms race, to swallow a pill, proud and hauty.

A bit of expressions are connected with different spheres of people’s life, nature, etc.

1. nature, e.g. out of the blue, as welcome as snow in May, to rain cats and dogs, etc.

2. agriculture, e.g. plough the sand, reap a rich harvest, sow wild oats, etc.

3. sports, e.g. fair play, to kick a goal, etc.

4. mythology, e.g. the apple of discord, Achilles’ heel, etc.

5. the Bible, e.g. Solomon’s judgement, forbidden fruit, etc.

6. folklore, e.g. peeping Tom, Calamity Jane, etc.

7. literature, e.g. to fight the windmills, a green-eyed monster, etc.