Magna Carta, also called Magna Carta Libertatum, is an English charter, originally issued in the year 1215 and reissued later in the 13th century in modified versions. The later versions excluded the most direct challenges to the monarch's authority that had been present in the 1215 charter. The charter first passed into law in 1225; the 1297 version, with the long title (originally in Latin) The Great Charter of the Liberties of England, and of the Liberties of the Forest, still remains on the statute books of England and Wales.

The 1215 charter required King John of England to proclaim certain liberties, and accept that his will was not arbitrary, for example by explicitly accepting that no "freeman" (in the sense of non-serf) could be punished except through the law of the land, a right which is still in existence today.

Magna Carta was the first document forced onto an English King by a group of his subjects, the feudal barons, in an attempt to limit his powers by law and protect their privileges. It was preceded and directly influenced by the Charter of Liberties in 1100, in which King Henry I had specified particular areas wherein his powers would be limited.

Despite its recognised importance, by the second half of the 19th century nearly all of its clauses had been repealed in their original form. Three clauses remain part of the law of England and Wales, however, and it is generally considered part of the uncodified constitution. Lord Denningdescribed it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot".^[1] In a 2005 speech, Lord Woolf described it as "first of a series of instruments that now are recognised as having a special constitutional status",^[2] the others being the Habeas Corpus Act, the Petition of Right, the Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement.

The charter was an important part of the extensive historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law in the English speaking world, and it was Magna Carta (rather than other early concessions by the monarch) which survived to become a "sacred text".^[3] In practice, Magna Carta in the medieval period did not in general limit the power of kings, but by the time of the English Civil War it had become an important symbol for those who wished to show that the King was bound by the law. It influenced the early settlers in New England^[4] and inspired later constitutional documents, including the United States Constitution

 

   For two hundred years the English people were at war with the Danes who came from Denmark and the Northmen who came from Scandinavia. King Alfred when he was a boy of sixteen took part in the battles with the enemies. At twenty he became king of Wessex and began to prepare for the defence of the country. He built a fleet of ships and fortifications on the coasts. The small kingdoms were united to fight against the invaders. After the victory over the Danes, King Alfred did much for his people. He opened schools, asked scholars to translate into English the best works of world literature and worked out the English code. The English people named him Alfred the Great.

The word pub is short for public house. There are over 60,000 pubs in the UK (53,000 in England and Wales, 5,200 in Scotland and 1,600 in Northern Ireland). One of the oldest pubs, Fighting Cocks in St. Albans, Herts, is located in a building that dates back to the eleventh century.Pubs can be found in every town or village. Social life for many people centred on the pub for many years. Opening and closing times are decided by law. Pubs in England and Wales close at 11 p. m And ten minutes before closing time, the barman shouts, "Last orders!" When you go into a pub you have to go to the bar, pay for your drink and carry it to your seat. One of the main attractions of the pub for all regular pub goes is that it offers good company in friendly surroundings. Where else can you appear as a complete stranger and at once be able to join a conversation with a group of people?

People often meet at a pub before going on to another place. Some people do a tour of all the pubs in one area and have a drink in each one. It's usual for each person in a group to take it in turns to buy drinks for everyone and this is called a "round".

Pub meals have become very popular over the past ten years and are generally cheap and often good. Pubs with gardens or chairs and tables outside are often crowded in the summer. Pubs also provide entertainment: live music, singing, video and karaoke machines.

Pubs are still a central part of British culture. Good conversation and good beer are two essential items provided by them. The drinking beer in a public house is not compulsory. But it's said that beer is the perfect drink for the pub - it comes in large measures so that just one drink provides plenty of conversation time.

Places of Interest in Great Britain

Britain is rich in its historic places which link the present with the past. The oldest part of London is Lud Hill, where the city is originated. About a mile west of it there is Westminster Palace, where the king lived and the Parliament met, and there is also Westminster Abbey, the coronation church. Liverpool, the "city of ships", is England's second greatest port, ranking after London. The most interesting sight in the Liverpool is the docks. They occupy a river frontage of seven miles. The University of Liverpool, established in 1903, is noted for its School of Tropical Medicine. And in the music world Liverpool is a well-known name, for it's the home town of "The Beatles".

Stratford-on-Avon lies 93 miles north-west of London. Shakespeare was born here in 1564 and here he died in 1616. Cambridge and Oxford Universities are famous centres of learning. Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument, presumably built by Druids, members of an order of priests in ancient Britain. Tintagel Castle is King Arthur's reputed birthplace. Canterbury Cathedral is the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, head of the Church of England.

The British Museum is the largest and richest museum in the world. It was founded in 1753 and contains one of the world's richest collections of antiquities. The Egyptian Galleries contain human and animal mummies. Some parts of Athens' Parthenon are in the Greek section. Madam Tussaud's Museum is an exhibition of hundreds of life-size wax models of famous people of yesterday and today. The collection was started by Madam Tussaud, a French modeller in wax, in the 18th century. Here you can meet Marilyn Monroe, Elton John, Picasso, the Royal Family, the Beatles and many others: writers, movie stars, singers, politicians, sportsmen, etc.

Outstanding Events from the History of America

The first voyages along the coast of modern South and Central America were made by Amerigo Vespucci. That is why, in the 16th century German cartographer named this fourth part of the world after the explorer. At the beginning of the 17th century European colonies were founded on the territory of the modern USA.

In 1620 first colonists landed at Plymouth Rock. They came from England on board the "Mayflower". Most of them were Puritans or former Anglicans who were called pilgrims. Their hopes were connected with the promises of the Bible about the land "of honey and milk", and America was thought to be this land. Later on Dutch, Spanish and Swedish colonies appeared.

People who came to America were mostly farmers, who wanted to exploit new lands. The development of trade, industry and agriculture in the colonies constantly conflicted with the economic policy of Britain. After constant pressure on the colonies on July 4, 1776, the Second Congress declared the Colonies to be independent of Great Britain.

The new state was called the United States of America and July 4 became its national holiday. The Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. the Battle at Saratoga in 1777 when the Americans forced a large British army to capitulate, was a turning point in the long War for Independence. In this war the Americans were supported by France.

In 1783 Britain finally recognized American independence. At the beginning of 1861 the Southern states left the Union and founded the Confederation. That was the beginning of the war between the South and the North. The results of the war were the abolishing of slavery and establishment of "Indivisible union of indivisible states" The states lost their right to leave the union.

The 1930s were the years of Great Depression in the USA. Franklin Roosevelt set up government organizations called agencies. They found work for people, gave money to help the unemployed and homeless and helped the nation to recover from the Depression.

Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest universities in England. Both of these universities are very beautiful. They have some of the finest architecture in Britain. Some of their colleges, chapels and libraries are three, four and even five hundred years old, and are full of valuable books and precious paintings.  Little is known about the early history of Cambridge but there is enough information to trace the first steps due to which Oxford gained its intellectual glory. The first college of Oxford University was founded in 1249. The university now has thirty-five colleges and about thirteen thousand students.  There were no women students at Oxford until 1878, when the first women's college, Lady Margaret Mall, opened. Now, most colleges are open to men and women. Oxford is famous for its first-class education as well as its beautiful buildings. Many students want to study there, It is not easy to get a place at Oxford University to study for a degree. But outside the university there are many smaller private colleges which offer less difficult courses and where it is easy to enroll

. The history of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer to discover New Zealand was Abel Janszoon Tasman on 13 December 1642.^[1] Captain James Cook, who reached New Zealand on 19 April 1770 on the first of his three voyages,^[2] was the first European explorer to circumnavigate and map New Zealand.From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers. In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangiwas signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Māori equal rights with British citizens. There was extensive European and some Asian settlement throughout the rest of the century. War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand's land passing from Māori to Pākehā (European) ownership, and most Māori subsequently became impoverished.From the 1890s the New Zealand parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women's suffrage and old age pensions. From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state was developed. Meanwhile, Māori culture underwent a renaissance, and from the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers. This led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century. In the 1980s the economy was largely deregulated and a number of socially liberal policies, such as decriminalisation of homosexuality, were put in place. Foreign policy, which had previously consisted mostly of following the United Kingdom or the United States, became more independent. Subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat.

Major cities of England include London, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Liverpool, Manchester, Bristol, Coventry, Leicester, andNottingham. These cities are known world over for their magnificent structures, exquisite art galleries and museums, and as major shopping destinations. While traveling through these beautiful cities of England you will discover and rediscover a renewed feeling of excitement and adventure. The magnificent buildings in England are major crowd pleasers. London houses important landmarks such as the Houses of Parliament, Tower Bridge, Buckingham Palace, Westminster Abbey, Tower of London, the British Museum , National Gallery and Madame Tussauds Museum. In Birmingham major attractions are Barber Institute of Fine Arts, Cadbury World, Midlands Arts Center and Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery. In Sheffield prominent attractions are Sheffield Winter Gardens, the Peace Gardens, Heeley City Farm and Graves Park. While visiting Manchester see Printworks Leisure Complex and Manchester Velodrome. Coventry also provides a number of tourist attractions like Coventry Cathedral, Coventry Transport Museum, St. Mary's Hall, Holy Trinity Church and the Herbert Art Gallery. Major tourist attractions in Nottingham include Nottingham Castle, Caves of Nottingham, the Galleries of Justice, the Tales of Robin Hood on Maid Marian Way and the Old Market Square. In Liverpool, City Center is the hub of all cultural activities and houses major attractions. The World Museum Liverpool, the Walker Art Gallery and the Metropolitan Cathedral are also quite popular. While in Bristol you can catch the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta, one of Europe's largest hot air balloon events. Leeds is famous as a major shopping destination due to its hip and happening markets like the Victoria Quarter, the Corn Exchange, the White Rose Centre Leeds Kirkgate Market, Leeds Shopping Plaza, Headrow Shopping Centre, the Light, St Johns Centre, Merrion Centre Leeds, Crown Point, and Birstall Retail Park. Meadowhall Shopping Center in Sheffield is one of Europe's largest shopping centers with over 270 stores.

There is a huge city in the northeastern part of the USA near Lake Michigan.

In America, there are many large cities,

Chicago is the third-largest city in the United States and one of the country's leading industrial, commercial, financial and transport centres. It, occupying flatland traversed by two short rivers: the Chicago River and the Calumet River.

it has one of the world's busiest airports — O'Hare International Airport.

Chicago is America's most important haulage centre and is a significant port for both domestic and international trade. Great Lakes freighters and river barges deliver such commodities as iron ore, coal, chemicals, oil and grain.

The Chicago metropolitan area has the highest number of manufacturing employees in the United States. City's largest employers are the electrical goods industry, followed by the steel, machinery, fabricated metals, foods, printing and publishing, chemicals and transport equipment industries.

Chicago has one of the world's most beautiful lakefronts.

The world's first skyscraper was constructed in Chicago, in 1885.

Chicago is a major centre of higher education, with numerous colleges and universities. The prestigious University of Chicago founded in 1890 was the site of the world's first controlled nuclear chain reaction. It happened in 1942.

San Francisco is a special place, very different from most American cities. It lies on a small finger of land with the Pacific Ocean on one side and a huge harbour on the other. San Francisco's population is only about 700 000 but it is the biggest business centre in the west of the USA. It is also America's most international city with newspapers in thirty different languages. The city is known as "the Paris of the West".

Most people enjoy the climate in San Francisco. It's never too hot and never really cold. The sea winds are healthy and they make you hungry. And it's good to be hungry in San Francisco because the food is fabulous with more than 2600 restaurants serving food from all over the world.

There are at least three small cities in San Francisco: "Little Italy", with its pizzerias and restaurants, "Chinatown" with wonderful shops and exciting food and "Japan-town". And everywhere you go you will see boats out on the sea, smell fresh and salt and feel the sea wind on your face.

If you live in San Francisco you get plenty of exercise, because it's a city of hills. Perhaps that's why the famous cablecars are so popular. And of course the views from the hills are spectacular.

 Los Angeles spans a widely diverse geographic area. Primarily a desert basin, the area is surrounded by the San Gabriel Mountain range and divided by the Santa Monica Mountains. Los Angeles County has 81 miles of coastline. There are such rivers as the Los Angeles, the Rio Hondo, the San Gabriel and the Ventura rivers.

The climate of Los Angeles as the climate of Southern California has often been described as «perfect» and with good reason. Mostly it is sunny and warm with gentle ocean breezes in the summer. The humidity is low with little rain. In fact, there are no unpleasant seasons in Los Angeles.

The name Los Angeles is Spanish for the Angels. In the late 18th century, Felipe de Neve, Spanish Governor of California, saw the need to establish a settlement along the River Los Angeles, The primary purpose for the pueblo was to reaffirm Spain's claim over the territory in the face of encroachments by Russia in the north and Britain from the sea. The settlement would also help to keep Spain's California military garrisons supplied and fed. Los Angeles was officially established by Governor Felipe de Neve on September 4,1781.

Governor de Neve's statue stands today at the Plaza of Olvera Street in downtown Los Angeles. Later, when Mexico became an independent state, California with Los Angeles was governed by Mexicans.

In August of 1846, American soldiers entered Los Angeles and the Stars and Stripes flag has flown over the city since January 1847. On February, 1848 the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed and the Mexican-American War was finished, California was ceded to the United States. In 1851 the first Los Angeles City police force wasorganized.

Nowadays the city of Los Angeles holds many distinctions. Los Angeles is the entertainment capital of the world, a cultural centre which has more than 300 museums and a paradise of good weather.

It is the only city in the world to host the Summer Olympics twice. Downtown of Los Angeles is the largest government centre outside of Washington, D.C.

Los Angeles has the only remaining wooden lighthouse in the world. It is located in Fermin Park in San Pedro. Los Angeles has the largest historical theatre district, located in Downtown on Broadway.

Los Angeles is on the leading edge of the growth industries. The Los Angeles area * Digital Coast» has more multimedia jobs than Silicon Valley and New York City combined. The Los Angeles metropolitan area, with more than 122,000 jobs in the fashion industry, has surpassed New York's fashion district work force.

The population of Los Angeles is about four million people. Los Angeles ranks as the second largest city in the nation behind New York City, In Los Angeles there are people from about 140 countries^speaking approximately 86 different languages and currently call Los Angeles home.

 

New Year's Day Martin Luther King Day President's Day Memorial Day Independence Day Labor Day Columbus Day Veterans Day Thanksgiving Day Christmas Day

January 1 third Monday in January third Monday in February last Monday in May July 4 first Monday in September second Monday in October November 11 fourth Thursday in November December 25

 

In a strict sense, there are no national holidays in the United States. Each of the 50 states has jurisdiction over its own holidays. The above ten holidays are proclaimed by the federal government as holidays for federal government employees and most states observe these holidays on the same dates (commonly called legal or publicholidays). Native plants combine with the ethnic diversity of the United States to make an extensive (and delicious) array of unique American foods. Most days of the year are proclaimed as national "food holidays." Many states also have officially recognized food symbols. See list of  January National Hot Tea Month National Oatmeal Month National Slow Cooking Month National Soup Month Almost all American composers of note belong to the 20th century, and include such names as Charles Ives, Aaron Copland, Samuel Barber, Roger Sessions and Virgil Thomson. Edgard Varese and John Cage have gained fame as experimental composers. It is through the development of popular music in the 20th century that the USA has dominated the western world. Jazz, a style of music created at the end of the 19th century by black Americans out of their gospel and blues songs, was being played all over the USA by both black and white musicians by the 1920s, and influenced the development of both dance music and popular songs in the 1930s and 1940s. After the Second World War jazz and popular music developed in separate directions. Black musicians created a more sophisticated style called bebop. The rhythm and blues music that derived from jazz, combined with aspects of country and western music, developed into rock-n-roll in the 1950s with the music of Bill Haley, Chuck Berry, Elvis Presley, Buddy Holly and others. In the 1960s some British groups, especially the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, became internationally famous and for a brief period popular music was dominated by developments in Britain. Since that time, rock has incorporated folk music, soul music has developed, and many social phenomena, such as drug culture, the civil rights movement and the peace movement, have found their expression in rock music. The musical has also made an important contribution to popular music. Developing from the British music hall and American vaudeville early in the 20th century, composers such as George Gershwin, Cole Porter, Rodgers and Hammerstein, Stephen Sondheim and Leonard Bernstein on Broadway, and Ivor Novello, Noel Coward and more recently Andrew Lloyd Webber in Britain, have made the musical into one of the most important forms of popular music.

Canada (  /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9.9 million square kilometres, Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.

The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various groups of Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British andFrench expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after theSeven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Balfour Declaration of 1926 and reaffirmed by the Statute of Westminster of 1931, which declared self-governingdominions within the British Empire to be equal. The Canada Act of 1982 finally severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British Parliament.

Canada is a federal state that is governed as a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a bilingual nation with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. One of the world's most highly-developed countries, Canada has a diversified economy that is reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade – particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had along and complex relationship. It is a member of the G7, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Commonwealth of Nations, Francophonie, OAS, APEC, and UN. With the sixth-highest Human Development Index globally, Canada has one of the highest standards of living and per capita income in the world.

In 1775, people in New England began fighting the British for their independence. On July 2, 1776, the Congress secretly voted for independence from Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence was first published two days later on July 4, 1776. The first public reading of the Declaration of Independence was on July 8, 1776. Delegates began to sign the Declaration of Independence on August 2, 1776. In 1870, Independence Day was made an unpaid holiday for federal employees. In 1941, it became a paid holiday for them.The first description of how Independence Day would be celebrated was in a letter from John Adams to his wife Abigail on July 3, 1776. He described "pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations" throughout the United States. However, the term "Independence Day" was not used until 1791.Interestingly, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, both signers of the Declaration of Independence and presidents of the United States, died on July 4, 1826 - exactly 50 years after the adoption of the declaration. It is also important to note that Native Americans lived in the country and each tribe had its own nation and government prior to the European settlers.The most common Independence Day symbol is the American flag. Its design is displayed in all possible ways on July 4 and can be seen in front of homes and buildings. Other symbols associated with Independence Day are the Statue of Liberty on Ellis Island in New York and the fireworks viewed all over the United States. Sometimes large civic works such as the Erie Canal and the Washington Monument start on July 4, emphasizing their contribution to the economy and culture of the United States.

The United States does not have national holidays in the sense of days on which all employees in the U.S. receive mandatory a day free from work and all business is halted by law.^[1] The U.S. federal government can only recognize national holidays that pertain to its own employees; it is at the discretion of each state or local jurisdiction to determine official holiday schedules. There are eleven suchfederal holidays, ten annual and one quadrennial holiday.^[2]

The annual federal holidays are widely observed by state and local governments; however, they may alter the dates of observance or add or subtract holidays according to local custom. Pursuant to theUniform Monday Holiday Act of 1968 (taking effect in 1971), official holidays are observed on a Monday, except for New Year's Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas.^[3]There are also U.S. state holidays particular to individual U.S. states, such as Good Friday observed by 12 states.^[4]

Malls, shopping centers and most retail stores close only on Easter, Thanksgiving and Christmas Day, but remain open on all other holidays (early closing on Christmas Eve and New Year's Eve, and sometimes on other major holidays).^[5] Virtually all companies observe and close on the "major" holidays (New Year's Day, Easter, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Thanksgiving, andChristmas). Some also add the day after Thanksgiving (Black Friday), most businesses also add religious holiday of Good Friday, and sometimes one or more of the other federal/state holidays.^[6]

Winston Churchill Again Prime Minister of Great Britain (1951): After being chosen to be Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1940 to lead the country during World War II, Winston Churchill refused to surrender to the Germans, built up British morale, and became a central force of the Allies. However, before the war with Japan had ended, Churchill and his Conservative Party were soundly defeated by the Labour Party in a general election held in July 1945.

Considering Churchill's near-hero status at the time, it was a shock that Churchill lost the election. The public, although grateful to Churchill for his role in winning the war, was ready for change. After half a decade at war, the populace was ready to think of the future. The Labour Party, who focused on domestic rather than foreign issues, included in its platform programs for such things as better health care and education.

Six years later, in another general election, the Conservative Party won the majority of seats. With this win, Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of Great Britain for his second term in 1951.

On April 5, 1955, at age 80, Churchill resigned as Prime Minister.

Britain joined WWII for the same reason they had joined WWI, a fear of growing German military power.  Britain felt that a Germany dominant in Europe, controlling Poland and probably the Balkans, would be 'too big to handle'. Thus, using their weak ties to Poland as an excuse, the British declared war on Germany in 1939, a war that Germany did not desire or seek.  Also, strange as it may sound, Britain got into war due to a personal loathing by Churchill of Hitler. Other statesmen more or less got along with Hitler but Churchill hated Germans and Hitler in particular. He would not allow for negotiations, which could have ended the war quickly and on good terms for the British, by 1940.  I have often thought that had the British people known what their leadership knew, that war would likely bankrupt the country and cause the loss of empire gathered over 500 years, that they would not have supported Churchill and his crusade. The leaders of British industry and commerce knew that Britain could not afford to fight WWII and cautioned Churchill against being too provocative. Churchill would hear none of it and ended up with his country reduced to second rate status internationally with major power shifted to the USA and Russia. Towards the end of WWII the British people finally had enough of Churchill and voted him out of office. He's gone down as an icon in the history books despite a military and political record that is a disaster by any reasonable standard.  

Great Britain is the term used for the island containing the contiguous nations¹ of England, Scotland and Wales. Great Britain is used to distinguish Britain from Brittania Minor, or Brittany, in France. The term "Great Britain" was officially used only after King James I (who was also James VI of Scotland) acceded to the throne of England and Wales in 1603, styling himself King of Great Britain, although legislative union between Scotland and England did not take place until 1707.

England, Scotland and Wales together with the province of Northern Ireland, form the country officially known as "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" or simply the United Kingdom.

The United Kingdom came into being in 1801 following the Irish Union, although the greater part of Ireland gained independence in 1921 to form the Irish Republic (or Eire). The majority of the people in Northern Ireland have wished to remain part of the U.K., although a minority wish unification with the Irish Republic.

The term "England" is sometimes erroneously used by both natives of England (the English) and those outside our country to refer to the United Kingdom. Natives of the other constituent nations of the U.K. find such usage offensive, so it is best avoided! Although there is no adjective for the "United Kingdom" the term "British" is acceptable, although has to be used with care and sensitivity in Northern Ireland, where one section of the community would be happy being so-described, whereas the other would most definitely regard themselves as "Irish".

The United Kingdom does not include the Isle of Man (which lies between Great Britain and the island of Ireland) and the Channel Islands (which lie off the North coast of France). These are direct dependencies of the British Crown, maintaining their own legislative, monetary and taxation systems. Each have their own parliaments and a Governor, appointed by the Crown.

The British Isles is used more loosely to describe the main island of Great Britain together with its associated islands (including the Isle of Man). It has no legal significance.

The Channel Islands, which include the independent States of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney and Sark, are the only remaining components of the "Duchy of Normandy" which still belong to the British Crown.

The United Kingdom (including the Channel Islands, but without the Isle of Man) is a member of the European Union. The Isle of Man maintains free-trade agreements with the EU, but is not a member.

The power of the Executive Branch is vested in the President of the United States, who also acts as head of state and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President is responsible for implementing and enforcing the laws written by Congress and, to that end, appoints the heads of the federal agencies, including the Cabinet. The Vice President is also part of the Executive Branch, ready to assume the Presidency should the need arise.

The Cabinet and independent federal agencies are responsible for the day-to-day enforcement and administration of federal laws. These departments and agencies have missions and responsibilities as widely divergent as those of the Department of Defense and the Environmental Protection Agency, the Social Security Administration and the Securities and Exchange Commission.