Who was a founder of ecology? Ernst Haeckel

Who did define ecology as 'the study of the structure and function of nature, which includes the living world'? E. P. Odum

Which of these are the direct domains of applied ecology? wildlife conservation, habitat management, mitigation of ecological impacts of environmental pollution, ecosystem restoration, species reintroductions, fisheries, forestry and game management

What are the main processes that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology? the entirety of life (called the biocenosis) and the medium that life exists in (the biotope)

Which branch of economics does regard the economy as a subsystem of the earth ecosystem that is sustained by a metabolic flow or "throughput" from and back to the larger system? Ecological economics

Which of these disciplines does refer to the economy as a subsystem in dynamic equilibrium with the parent ecosystem/ biosphere that sustains it? Sustainable economy

Which of the branches of economics does address environmental problems such as pollution, negative externalities, and evaluation of non-market environmental services? Environmental economics

What are the three guiding principles of evolution? natural selection, inheritance, and differential survival

What is referred to as a self sustaining structural and functional unit of the biosphere? An ecosystem

What is defined as a homogeneous ecological formation that exists over a vast region? Biome

What is referred to as a series of steps by which energy is obtained, used, and transformed by living things? Food chain

Which compounds are produced in the process of photosynthesis? Glucose and oxygen

What is produced in the process of respiration? carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) CO2

What is referred to as the range and variety of organisms present in a given ecological community or environment? Biodiversity

What is defined as “an environmentally uniform region characterized by a particular set of abiotic ecological factors”? A Biotope

What is referred to as a group of populations of plants, animals, microorganisms? Biocenose

What is defined as the natural conditions and environment in which a plant, animal or person lives? Habitat

What measurements do identify ecological health of ecosystem? robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem; i.e. how far the ecosystem is away from its steady state

Which factors do determine the ability of ecosystem to rebound from a disruptive agent? the toxicity of the introduced element and the resiliency of the original ecosystem

What is referred to as an ecosystem function? to an emergent phenomenon in ecosystems, such as energy transfer, nutrient cycling, gas regulation, climate regulation, and the water cycle

Which of these are considered as direct ecosystem services? pollination, wood, and erosion prevention

Which of these are considered as indirect ecosystem services? climate moderation, nutrient cycles, and detoxifying natural substances

Which of these are referred to as intraspecific relations? (Intraspecific relations are those that are established between individuals of the same species, forming a population. They are relations of cooperation or competition, with division of the territory, and sometimes organization in hierarchical societies.)

What is defined as a condition or a substance that limits the presence and success of an organism or a group of organisms in an area? A limiting factor

What are two well-known laws about limiting factors? The law of minimum and the law of tolerance

Who was known as the "father of the fertilizer industry"? Liebig

Who did put forward the law of tolerance? Shelford

Who did define a limiting condition or factor as any condition that approaches or exceeds the limits of tolerance? Odum

What is referred to as the position of every group of organisms obtaining their food in the same manner? trophic level

What is the correct order for the grazer food chain? ( Food chains and food webs are methods of describing an ecosystem by describing how energy flows from one species to another. Food chains and food webs describe the successive transfer of energy from plants to the animals that eat them, and so on. Food webs can be thought of as interconnected or intersecting food chains.)

Which system is the law of ten percent of energy transfer referred to? Lindermann

Which parameters are measured to calculate harvestable net production of trophic levels? gross production minus growth, reproduction, respiration, and excretion

What is the ecological efficiency of energy transfers between trophic levels? averages about 10%.

Which condition is required for the law of competitive exclusion? "complete competitors cannot coexist"

Which concept is used in urban ecology denoting the replacement of one dominant group by another? The concept of ecological succession

What type of succession is caused by external environmental influences and not by the vegetation? Allogenic changes

Which law states that “energy cannot be created or destroyed”? The First Law of thermodynamics

Which law does state that all physical processes proceed in such a way that the availability of the energy involved decreases? Lindemann’s law of 10 % of energy

What amount of solar radiation is incorporated into photosynthetic output? only about 1 – 3%

Which types of trophic pyramid are used to describe the distribution of measurable parameters between different trophic levels in an ecosystem? energy, biomass, or some other measurable quantity

Which parameter does measure the total living matter in an ecosystem? biomass

Which parameter does measure the amount of chemical energy produced by photosynthesis? Gross primary productivity (GPP)

Which parameter does measure the rate of photosynthesis – the rate of cell respiration? Net primary productivity (NPP)

Which parameter does measure the living matter produced by consumers and the decomposers in a given time? secondary productivity

Which discipline is defined as the study of how living systems influence, and are controlled by, the geology and chemistry of the earth? Biogeochemistry

By which cycle a chemical element moves through both biotic and abiotic compartments of Earth? A biogeochemical cycle, or a nutrient cycle

Which process does comprise the first step in the biological carbon cycle? the conversion of inorganic atmospheric carbon into a biological form

What the main component are fossil fuels comprised of? Hydrocarbons are the main component of coal and petroleum — fossil fuels

In which process is atmospheric nitrogen converted to an organic or fixed form? Nitrogen fixation

By which process is nitrogen compound converted back into gaseous nitrogen? Denitrification

At which stage of the hydrologic cycle is water primarily purified? Infiltration

What percent of water is held as freshwater in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater, lakes, soil, the atmosphere, and within live organisms? 3%

What is referred to as the overall ability of an ecosystem to maintain its natural, original, or current condition and to produce goods and services? Ecological Capacity

Which of these air pollutants have mutagenic effect?

What are the main problems caused by nitrogen oxide pollution in the atmosphere? Possessing of mutagenic properties, destroying of ozone layer, corrosive effect on metals, photochemical smog

What are effects of water pollution? Turbidity, eutrophication, foam formation, impairment of taste and unpleasant odours, inorganic nitrates and phosphates

Which of these gases do belong to greenhouse gases? CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)

Which low is referred to the increased accumulation of toxic substances in food pyramids? Law of biological magnification

Why biodiversity is a critical factor for a healthy ecosystem? Because healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a variety of disasters

What are essential services provided by rainforests? Providing of continuously recycling carbon dioxide into oxygen

How much is Earth's oxygen produced by rainforests? 20%

Where is the ozone layer located in? Stratosphere, from 10 to 50 km above Earth’s surface

What range of UV harmful radiation is screened out by ozone? 35km attitude

Which of these components can react with ozone and deplete it? Free Radical Catalysis (NO, N2O, OH, Cl)

Which theory does state that sustainable ecological development is possible only if humankind doesn’t exceed the limits of carrying capacity of ecosystems and biosphere? Theory of biotical regulation

What is referred to as a new evolutionary stage of the biosphere, when human reason will provide further sustainable development both humanity and the global environment? Noosphere

Which of V.I.Vernadsky’s conditions for the creation of the noosphere do coincide with sustainable development?

What is referred to as the basic natural and industrial system (natural and technical geosystem) - biogeocoenose with human intervention? Noobiogeocenose

What are components of noobiogeocenose? Biotope, biocenose, and noocenose

What are structural units of the Natural-Industrial Systems? Noobiogeocenos, (NIC), (TIC), Technosphere.

What is referred to as part of the biosphere, transformed by people by means of direct or indirect action of technical facilities and occupied by products of industrial activity? Technosphere

Which international program does emphasize the principle of sustainability applied to environment protection and well-deserved conditions for the whole mankind? “Agenda 21”

What was the most important document adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992? “Agenda 21”

What is the most celebrated formulation for sustainable development given by the Brundtland Commission? The Concept of Sustainable Development

What is referred to as Economic sustainability? Produce goods and services on a continuing basis, to maintain manageable levels of government and external debt

What is referred to as Environmental sustainability? Maintenance of biodiversity, atmospheric stability, maintain a stable resource base

What is referred to as Social sustainability? Distributional equity, adequate provision of social services including health and education, gender equity, and political accountability and participation.

Which concept does state that manufactured capital of equal value can take the place of natural capital? Natural capital refers to traditionally defined natural resources, to the stocks of environmental assets such as clean air and water

Which concept does require maintaining and conserving the natural capital because its functions cannot be duplicated by manufactured capital? Weak sustainability

Which concept does state that every component or subsystem of the natural environment, every species, and every physical stock must be preserved? “Very strong” sustainability

Which of sustainable development indicators does incorporate "long-term environmental damage"? Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare

What is defined as external effects (externalities)? External effects - which positively or negatively affect the other side

What kinds of externalities does the transboundary pollution belong to? Global (cross-country) externalities

Which type of externalities is closely linked to the concept of sustainable development? Temporary externalities

What is the timeframe of the concept of transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to sustainable development?

What is the timeframe for achieving Kazakhstan’s rating among fifty most competitive countries of the world?

What is share of renewables to be achieved in Kazakhstan’s energy balance by 2024?

What type of resources does occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by mankind, in a natural forms? Natural resources

What is the type of natural resource replaced by natural processes at a rate comparable or faster than its rate of consumption by human? Renewable resources

Which of these resources are renewable resources without storage possibility? Solar radiation, wind, tide and scenery

Which of these resources are renewable resources with storage possibility? Resources that can be stored

Which resources are comprised of biological resources i.e. all living beings? Renewable resources with augmentable stock

What is the type of natural resource that cannot be produced, re-grown, regenerated, or reused on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate? The non-renewable resource

What is referred to as the stock of natural ecosystems that yields a flow of valuable ecosystem goods or services into the future? Natural Capital

Which disciplines does study the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction? Conservation biology

Which of there factors do contribute to loss of biodiversity? Overpopulation, deforestation, pollution and global warming or climate change, driven by human activity

Who was the author of holistic management concept? Savory and Jody Butterfield

What is referred to as systems thinking approach to managing land resources that builds biodiversity, improves production, generates financial strength, and improves the quality of life for those who use it? Holistic Management

Which approach does offer the best results in delivering water to plant roots with minimal losses? Drip irrigation

According to the UN World Water Development report, what percent of the world population will be living in areas with high water stress by 2030? 47%

Which UN document does aim at finding effective solutions to the emerging water crisis to make water sustainability a priority? In 2007, the UN Global Compact launched the CEO Water Mandate: It aims at strengthening the partnership between business leaders and the international community to find effective solutions to the emerging water crisis to make water sustainability a priority and to work with other stakeholders to help solve this growing crisis.

Which basic elements of ecotourism are based on sustainability principles? guidelines, and certification

Which are three reservoirs of Kazakhstan recognized as having international significance and conform to the list of reservoirs the Ramsar Convention? Nura, Syr-Darya, Aral sea?! Look 6^th lecture

What are two major ways of reducing negative human impact and enhancing ecosystem services?

1. Environmental management. This direct approach is based largely on information gained from earth science, environmental science and conservation biology.

2. Management of human consumption of resources, an indirect approach based largely on information gained from economics. Herman Daly has suggested three broad criteria for ecological sustainability: renewable resources should provide a sustainable yield (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); for non-renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generation should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment.

What is referred to as the stock of skills and knowledge embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce economic value? Human capital

Whose concept of labor power did state that in capitalism workers sold their labor power in order to receive income? Karl Marx

What is referred to as all resources that determine the value and the competitiveness of an enterprise? Intellectual capital

What is referred to as sharable knowledge or skills? instructional capital

Which of these do comprise organizational capital? Collective know-how, beyond the capabilities of individual employees. E.g.: information systems; policies; intellectual property. 7^th lecture

What is the external effect when the social benefit is less than the social cost? The result is that a free market is inefficient since at the quantity Q_p, the social benefit is less than the social cost, so society as a whole would be better off if the goods between Q_p and Q_s had not been produced. The problem is that people are buying and consuming too much steel.

Which conditions are required by the Coase Theorem to solve the problem of externalities?

Property rights be well defined

People act rationally

Transaction costs be minimal

What is defined as a tax imposed that is equal in value to the negative externality? A Pigovian tax

Which international document did aim at improving life in human settlements? The Habitat II Conference on Human Settlements (Istanbul, 1996)

Who did state that “cities are the world’s future and that they can be made livable? Habitat Secretary General Dr. N’Dow

What are the criteria for the “Best Practices” cities? Impact — Programs that have achieved the most tangible improvements in the lives and livelihoods of women, men and children;

1. Partnerships — The cities and communities that were able to form lasting partnerships between local and national governments, community organizations, the private sector and international agencies;

2. Sustainability — Initiatives that have resulted in changes in legislation, policies and decision-making, ensuring that the benefits to people are sustained.

What are main characteristics of sustainable human settlements defined by the Habitat Conference? a positive vision of sustainable human settlements — where all have adequate shelter, a healthy and safe environment, basic services, and productive and freely chosen employment.

Which document does consider urbanization as a positive phenomenon and an effective means for improving access to services, as well as economic and social opportunities? Global Report 7^th lec

What are advantages of urbanization? advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and transportation

According to the 2005 Revision of the UN World Urbanization Prospects report, how much will the urban population by 2030? rise to 60% (4.9 billion)

When the working definition of sustainable consumption was adopted? in January 1994 at "Oslo Symposium"

What are stakeholders of sustainable production and consumption? The Marrakech process

What are common features for definitions of sustainable consumption, sustainable production and sustainable development?

Quality of life;

Wise use of resources, and minimization of waste and pollution;

Use of renewable resources within their capacity for renewal;

Fuller product life-cycles; and

Inter-generational and intra-generational equity.

What are key economic sectors that need focusing on sustainable production to improve environmental performance? "The emphasis of sustainable production is on the supply side of the equation, focusing on improving environmental performance in key economic sectors, such as agriculture, energy, industry, tourism and transport.

Which organization is a leading independent authority that is exploring the dimensions of consumption and production? The Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production (CSCP)

What is the title for the 10-Year Framework Programs for Sustainable Consumption and Production? "Marrakech Process"

What are the three strategic priority areas of the Marrakech Process agenda? The first area deals with the socio-economic consequences of progress towards SCP, especially its contribution to human development and poverty reduction in developing countries. Addressing the consumption side is the focus of the second area, which deals with both individual and institutional patterns of consumption. The production side is dealt with in the third area, in which the CSCP seeks to encourage responsible industrial development.

What is defined as “the total weight of material flow 'carried by' an item of consumption in the course of its life cycle”? Ecological rucksack

What is defined as the more efficient use of materials and energy in order to reduce economic costs and environmental impacts? Eco-efficiency

Reduction of which indicator of a product is equivalent to increasing resource productivity? MIPS (material intensity per service unit)

What are two top priorities for changing consumption patterns? The changes in consumption patterns that most clearly influence the energy and material intensity of consumption have to do with changes in residing and mobility. These are also the sectors in which energy consumption grew most between 1985 and 1990 (Nurmela, 1993).

Which factors do determine the impact of population on the planet's resources and waste load calculated by means of the formula? The impact of any population on the planet's resources and waste load is the product of the population times its level of affluence times the damage done by the particular technologies that support that affluence (Meadows et al, 1992, p. 100). We would like to add to this formula a fourth essential factor, that is, the convergence of consumption patterns.

What is percent of consumption of the Earth's natural resources by industrial countries? between 40 and 86 percent

What is the ratio of per capita consumption rates in freshwater and grains in industrialized countries compared to non-industrialized countries? 3

Which process is referred to as manufacture of smaller and more light-weight products, resulted in less energy and materials needed to produce one unit? Dematerialization and energy efficiency

Which process is characterized by an increased portion of economic or other activity carried out across national borders?_________________________________________????????????

What is referred to as the provision of a maximum of useful end-services to consumers by using a minimum of materials and energy, and implying minimal environmental disruption? Service efficiency

Which approach does regard modern consumption from the cradle to the grave? LCA (life-cycle assessment)

How much is the industrial flow above its natural flow for metal such as lead? 18 times greater

Which system is aimed at creation of a sustainable production system which is circular, cradle-to-cradle? Clean production

Which model does require the 'product take back', where the producer takes back a product at the end of its useful life either directly of through a third party? Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)

What is referred to as new production processes, new products or services, and new management and business methods aimed at environmental protection? Eco-innovation

According to the OECD study, what is share of goods and services provided by eco-industries in the EU-25 GDP? 2.2%

What is referred to as using less energy to provide the same level of energy service? Energy efficiency

By what means can be energy efficiency achieved? by means of a more efficient technology or process rather than by changes in individual behavior

What is referred to as the “twin pillars” of a sustainable energy policy? Energy efficiency and renewable energy

What kind of energy use is referred to as paying the full cost of energy, including the cost of assuring that future generations will have their part of clean energy resources? "Sustainable" energy

What is referred to as the amount of carbon dioxide a country releases into the atmosphere during a certain period- usually one year- divided by the total population of that country? Biofuels – carbon-neutral fuels

What is referred to as the total amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases emitted over the full life cycle of a product or service”? carbon footprint

What is the goal of the "20 Percent by 2010" campaign in the USA? towns sign up to pledge to get 20 percent of the town's energy needs met by green power by 2010

What is referred to as the removal of pollutants or contaminants for the general protection of the environment? Environmental remediation

What process is referred to as the removal of pollutants or contaminants for the general protection of the environment? Environmental remediation

According to the Kazakhstan’s legislation on renewables what is expected development of wind power by 2024? to support the development of up to 2000MW of wind power

According to the Kazakhstan’s legislation on renewables what is expected development of new small scale hydro-electric power generation by 2024? to support the development of up up to 1000MW

What is emission reduction required by the Kyoto Protocol in OECD countries by 2012, relative to 1990 levels? about 700 million tons of carbon dioxide

What are the ‘flexible mechanisms’ established under the Kyoto Protocol that allow annex I countries to meet their GHG emission limitations? The three mechanisms are: (1) projects implemented jointly (Article 6), (2) the clean development mechanism (CDM, Article 12), and (3) trading of emission reduction units (Article 17). Restrictions on nuclear energy do not apply to emission trading

What are the main ethical principles? Ethical principles of business and management of the organization are integrity, value and loyalty. From these principles our standards are established to (1) encourage adherence to uncompromising ethical behavior, (2) increase awareness and acceptance of ethical conduct, and (3) emphasize the role of ethics when formulating decisions

Which of ethical standards of business do support employee’s human rights? Sustainability and Social Responsibility

According to the ITM Ethical Standards Committee survey what are the key facilitators of ethical behavior in the case of deceitful practices? individual values

What is referred to as "a concept whereby companies decide voluntarily to contribute to a better society and a cleaner environment”? Corporate Social Responsibility

What is referred to as "a process whereby public authorities seek to procure goods, services and works with a reduced environmental impact throughout their life cycle? Green Public Procurement

What is the target set for EU member states in Green Public Procurement by 2010? The target set for EU member states is 50% Green Public Procurement by 2010 In a recent report by CSR Europe, it appears that a small number of countries are at the forefront of Green Public Procurement. These include Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, The Netherlands, Sweden and the UK. In the key priority sectors identified for GPP (sectors which have a greater impact on the environment)  such as  IT, electricity and furniture the level of GPP of the countries listed above is among the highest

What is referred to as “the arena of uncoerced collective action around shared interests, purposes and value”? Civil society

Who is referred to as “a full and equal member of a polity, such as a democratic country”? A citizen

What is referred to as “a single identity possessed equally by all citizens of the polity, regardless of differences”? civic identity

What is referred to as “the fundamental institution that connects the individual bearer of rights to the protective agencies of the state”? Citizenship

What are types of participatory skills required for exercising the rights and carrying out the responsibilities and duties of citizenship in a democracy? Three types of participatory skills are interacting, monitoring, and influencing

Which organization has generated the Human Development Index and a number of other indices for measuring poverty, gender empowerment, governance and political freedom? United Nations Development Programme (UNDP

What are the two essential principles of democracy? control over public decision making and decision makers; and (2) equality between citizens in the exercise of that control; the expectation that third wave countries are on their way toward strong and established democracies. According to him the majority of the countries dubbed to be in transition are in fact in a huge grey zone of non-democratic regimes. He argues that only a handful of countries in Central Eastern Europe and Asia including Hungary, Poland and Taiwan appear to be consolidating democracy

What are the critical values of democracy? elections in new democracies have also been a source of a number of negative trends, According to Schedler, the phenomenon of “electoral authoritarianism” is one where elections are characterised by systematic cheating by the incumbent regime. These are the values of participation, authorization, representativeness, accountability, transparency, responsiveness and solidarity.

What are the requirements for the principle of participation in democracy? civil and political rights system, economic and social rights, elections, parties, NGOs, education for citizenship

What are the institutional means required for realization of the accountability principle in democracy? rule of law, sep. of powers, independent auditing process, legally enforceable standards, strong parliament. Scrutiny powers

What are the institutional means for realization of the transparency principle in democracy? freedom of info. Legislation, independent media

What are the indicators used to measure the Human Development Index? The HDI provides a composite measure of three dimensions of human development: living a long and healthy life (measured by life expectancy), being educated (measured by adult literacy and gross enrolment in education) and having a decent standard of living (measured by purchasing power parity, PPP, income)

What is Kazakhstan’s Human Development Index value? its HDI value of 0.804

What is Kazakhstan’s Gender Related Development Index value? Kazakhstan's GDI value, 0.803 should be compared to its HDI value of 0.804. Its GDI value is 99.9% of its HDI value

Which index does measure women’s involvement in economic and political life? The gender empowerment measure (GEM) reveals whether women take an active part in economic and political life

What is Kazakhstan’s Gender Empowerment Measure value? Kazakhstan ranks 73^rd out of 109 countries in the GEM, with a value of 0.532.

What is the timeframe for the Kazakhstan’s civil society development concept? concept of the civil society development for 2006-2011 was adopted

Which organization established in 1919 did aim at disarmament and preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare? The League of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end of World War I. Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights which were later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Which documents is considered to be the first record of human rights in Europe? The Twelve Articles of Black Forest

Which Article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights does proclaim the right to education? Article 26

Which document does state that “development is a human right”? The 1986 UN Declaration on the Right to Development

What was the International document that first proclaimed that “freedom from poverty is an integral and inalienable human right”? Under the UN Charter the international community recognizes that all human beings have equal, inalienable rights

Which document does state that “Good governance ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society …“? The UNDP policy document "Governance for Sustainable Human Development"

What is the timeframe for the Kazakhstan’s “Human Rights Action Plan”? Human Rights Action Plan 2009-2012’

What is Kazakhstan’s ranking in Political Rights given by the Freedom House? Freedom House observers group ranks Kazakhstan with a 6 in Political Rights

When was the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) ratified by Kazakhstan? The right to form associations had been written into the Constitution and, in 2005, Kazakhstan ratified the International Covenant on Civil & Political Rights, which states that each person shall have the right to associate with others.

Which economic indicator is used as a measure of a person's welfare and an approximation of general national well-being? Per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP per person)

Which indicator does consider consumer expenditure balanced by income distribution and cost associated with pollution and other unsustainable costs? The Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare is an economic indicator intended to replace the GDP

What is defined as the income level, below which people are defined as poor? the absolute level of income

Which indicator of poverty is defined as “the percentage of the population whose income is below a given poverty line”? the third dimension is measured by the percentage of the population below the income poverty line (50% of median household disposable income). decent standard of living,

What are indicators of the third dimension related to a decent standard of living for the Human Poverty Index-1? Economic provisioning For the HPI-1, it is measured by the unweighted average of the percentage of the population without access to safe water and the percentage of underweight children for their age.

1. 192. What was the proportion of population with incomes below the subsistence minimum obtained under the Kazakhstan’s Poverty Reduction Programme of 2003-2005? a pronounced skewness in distribution of income and wealth with 28.4 percent of the population living below the minimum subsistence level in 2001

Indicator

Measurement unit

Programme target

Actual

..

2005

2003

2004

2005

GDP per capita

US dollars

2028.0

2068.1

2874.2

3620.3

Proportion of population with incomes below the subsistence minimum

%

20.0

19.8

16.1

9.8*

Poverty reduction target! Reduce the proportion of the population with income lower than minimum level from 24,2% in 2002 down to 20% in 2005. In fact, as estimated by the National Agency of Statistics such indicator was 9.8% in 2005