39. Theater.

Noh. Noh drama was perfected in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by Kan'ami and his son Zeami, who refined the rustic mimetic art known as sarugaku. Noh received a great impetus under the patronage of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (shogun from 1368 to 1394). In the Edo period ( 1603-1868) the Tokugawa shogunate authorized five schools of noh for the entertainment of the samurai class. Noh is a highly stylized form of dance drama in which the main actor, who is usually masked, dances to the accompaniment of chanting and instrumental music.

Kyogen. Kyogen, short comic plays developed at about the same time as noh and generally performed in conjunction with it, are characterized by realism and down-to-earth humor, in sharp contrast to the lofty and minimalist tone of noh.

Kabuki. Kabuki dates back to the early seventeenth century when Okuni, a maiden consecrated to lzumo Shrine in Shimane Prefecture, created and performed original dances and led a troupe of her own. But the government banned first women and then young boys from perform-ing kabuki. After around 1652, therefore, kabuki devel-oped as a theatrical art performed by adult males alone, giving rise to the institution of oyama or onnagata male actors who specialize in female roles.

Kabuki was extremely popular with the general public in the Edo period, and its content and style mirror the manners and customs of that time. Although kabuki entered a phase of decadence and decline around the end of the Edo period and the beginning of the Meiji era (1868-1912), some of the leading actors of the day spearheaded a revivalist movement that led to the creation of a number of new works, mostly dance dramas inspired by noh themes. Some of these plays have won a lasting place in the repertoire.

Kabuki, adhering to traditional forms, continues to enjoy steady popularity today. lchikawa Ennosuke first appeared in "Yamatotakerur" in February 1986,"Oguri" in April 1991,and "Kaguya" in April 1996. Dubbed "super-kabuki," these works have proved tremendously popular and are becoming a core element of new-style kabuki. Bunraku is a highly sophisticated form of puppet theater featuring large puppets (each manipulated by three men), narrators (tayu), and samisen musicians.

Modern drama in the late twentieth century consisted of shingeki (experimental Western-style theater), which employed naturalistic acting and contemporary themes in contrast to the stylized conventions of Kabuki and No. In the postwar period, there was a phenomenal growth in creative new dramatic works, which introduced fresh aesthetic concepts that revolutionized the orthodox modern theater. Challenging the realistic, psychological drama focused on "tragic historical progress" of the Westernderived shingeki, young playwrights broke with such accepted tenets as conventional stage space, placing their action in tents, streets, and open areas and, at the extreme, in scenes played out all over Tokyo. Plots became increasingly complex, with play-within-a-play sequences, moving rapidly back and forth in time, and intermingling reality with fantasy. Dramatic structure was fragmented, with the focus on the performer, who often used a variety of masks to reflect different personae. Playwrights returned to common stage devices perfected in No and Kabuki to project their ideas, such as employing a narrator, who could also use English for international audiences. Major playwrights in the 1980s were Kara Joro , Shimizu Kunio, and Betsuyaku Minoru, all closely connected to specific companies. In the 1980s, stagecraft was refined into a more sophisticated, complex format than in the earlier postwar experiments but lacked their bold critical spirit.

Many Western plays, from those of the ancient Greeks to Shakespeare and from those of Fyodor Dostoevsky to Samuel Beckett, were performed in Tokyo. An incredible number of performances, perhaps as many as 3,000, were given each year, making Tokyo one of the world's leading theatrical centers. The opening of the replica of the Globe Theater was celebrated by importing an entire British company to perform all of Shakespeare's historical plays, while other Tokyo theaters produced other Shakespearean plays including various new interpretations of Hamlet and King Lear.

Suzuki Tadashi's Togo troupe developed a unique kind of "method acting," integrating avant-garde concepts with classical No and Kabuki devices, an approach that became a major creative force in Japanese and international theater in the 1980s. Another highly original East-West fusion occurred in the inspired production Nastasya, taken from Dostoevsky's The Idiot, in which Bando Tamasaburo, a famed Kabuki onnagata (female impersonator), played the roles of both the prince and his fianceй.

Bunraku

Bunraku developed at the same time as kabuki and deals with the same themes. In fact many of the most famous kabuki plays were originally written for the puppet theater. Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1724), who wrote many bunraku plays that were also adapted for kabuki, is still revered as one of Japan's greatest playwrights.

In 1966 the government completed the National Theater in Tokyo to present Japan's traditional performing arts. The National Noh Theater was completed in 1983 and the National Bunraku Theater in 1984. A new national theater in Shibuya Ward, Tokyo, is scheduled for completion in spring 1997. Its opening will be commemorated by opera, ballet, and other performances from October 1997 to February 1998.