3. Culture Background: The Age of Feudalism The Latter Half (Azuchi Momoyama, Edo)

After Nobunaga was murdered, Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded as Shogun and reunified the country. Hideyoshi built Osaka Castle. Large numbers of vassals, merchants and craftsmen flocked to the castle town, with the result that Osaka became a large centre where commerce and industry flourished. Peasants paid land taxes according to the area of their fields under a land surveying system known as kenchi. The non-samurai classes were deprived of all arms, such as swords, spears, firearms and so on, under the katana-gari law, meaning that it became impossible for people to leave the village or effect a change in social position. Hideyoshi suppressed Christianity and attempted to invade the Korean Peninsula on two occasions, however he perished in the process.

With the death of Hideyoshi, Tokugawa leyasu seized power after gaining victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in the year 1600. leyasu had Edo Castle constructed in Edo (present-day Tokyo) and relocated the wives and family of the daimyo of more than 260 different provinces here. The daimyo alternated residences between Edo and their fiefs on a yearly basis under a system known as sankin kotai. This procession of daimyo, both ways, required huge outlays of funds. (Refer to diagram.) The Shogunate required the daimyo to spend vast sums of money, causing their financial resources to be depleted. During this time, Japanese merchants travelled to the countries of South-East Asia on special trading ships authorized by the shogunate. Trade with foreign countries prospered and with this, the number of converts to Christianity also grew. Fearing that Christianity would throw the government into a state of disorder, the shogunate increased suppression of this religion, which inevi¬tably led to the complete isolation of the country. Japanese people and ships were forbidden to travel abroad and likewise, were unable to return from the outside world.

During the Edo Period, Osaka flourished as the number one centre of commerce in Japan. Ihara Saikaku's work Ninon Eitaigura, describes lively scenes of ships transporting loads of rice and thousands of wholesale rice stores lining the waterfront.

Social status in the Edo Period was clearly defined--people were classed as shi ('warrior'), no ('farmer'), ko ('artisan'), or sho ('tradesman'). Only samurai were allowed the privilege of having a family name and that of wearing two swords.

During this period of history the merchant classes thrived, Kabuki theatre and puppet plays enjoyed wide popularity and woodblock prints of the ukiyoe ('transitory world painting') style appeared for the first time.

In 1853, American warships, commanded by Commodore Perry, arrived in Uraga, bringing to an end the two hundred years of national isolation.

4. Cultural Background: The Modern Age (Meiji, Taisho and Showa Periods)

The fifteenth Shogun of the Tokugawa Shogunate, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, handed over government control to the Emperor Meiji, thus bringing to an end the age of the samurai warriors, which had continued for seven hundred years from the time of the Kamakura shogunate.

Edo assumed the name of Tokyo and the new era was named Meiji. In 1871, feudal clans were abolished and prefec­tures established (referred to as haihan-chiken). Governors appointed by the gov­ernment were dispatched to prefectures. The class system, consisting of warriors, farmers, artisans and tradesmen, which had previously existed, was done away with, all citizens being made equal. Thus, the common people, namely farmers, artisans and tradesmen adopted family names and were able to freely choose occupations and where they might live.

The government, in an attempt to catch up with foreign countries, had factories built throughout the country to boost the development of modern industry. To increase the strength of the military, a conscription system was introduced. To cover the costs of such efforts, compulsory systems of military service and the pay­ment of taxes were imposed on the people.

In 1894, in an effort to gain control of the Korean Peninsuala, Japan went to war with China (the Sino-Japanese War) and then again, in 1904, launched a military campaign against Russian forces in North-Eastern China (the Russo-Japanese War). After the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was annexed and became a colony of Japan. Finally, the military had a firm grasp on real power, allowing Japan to advance down the road of militarism. In 1931, Japanese forces launched an attack on Manchuria entering a Sino-Japanese con­flict which continued for 15 years. With its invasion of China and advance into Indo-China, Japan entered into conflict with the United States and its allies, rushing head­long into the Pacific War, which was to become the Second World War. After atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the American forces, the Japanese government accepted the Potsdam Declaration, formulated by the Allied Powers and surrendered. Even today, there are people who are suffering from the after-effects of radiation sickness-victims of the atom bombs. This experience must never be allowed to recur.

After the war, Japan was regenerated as a democratic nation. Under the direction of the General Headquarters of the Allied Forces, the Imperial Constitution or 'the Constitution of the Empire of Japan' was replaced by 'the Constitution of Japan'-a new constitution espousing democratic rights, respect for basic human rights and pacifism.

The time for co-operation with the nations of the world has arrived-Japan must cease to be 'inward-looking'. In this way, may wars of aggression be only ever things of the past.