4 Часть

Epenthesis is the occurrence of a sound in a word, in which it is not pronounced. Epenthesis arises for a variety of reasons, for example: an addition sound may discourage vowels, in adjacent syllables with no intervening consonant, or consonant clusters; and a consonant or vowel may be added to make pronunciation easier.

Examples:

1. A consonant may be added to separate vowels, this is the case with linking or intrusive [r], [w], [j].

drawing → draw[r]ing, trying→ try[j]ing, going→ go[w]ing

2. As a historical sound change

Old English ‘thunor’ → English ‘thunder’

3. In informal speech

In English, a stop consonant is often added as a transitional sound between the parts of a nasal+ fricative sequence:

English "hamster" [hæmstər] often pronounced with an added "p" sound [hæmpstə]

4. : length may be pronounced as [leŋ(k)θ], glimpse — as [glɪm(p)s] with the epenthetic [k] and [p].

Exhalation (or expiration) is the biological non-phonic movement of the air freely coming out from the lungs through the airways to the external environment during breathing. During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upward, causing compression of the lungs and that is why the air comes out.

Experimental phonetics is the branch of phonetics studies in­strumental method of study or instrumental analysis where special laboratory equipment is necessary. The use of instruments is valuable in ascertaining the nature of the limitations and characteristics of the human sensory appara­tus by providing finer and more detailed analysis against which sensory analysis can be assessed. In a general way, the introduc­tion of machines for measurements and for instrumental analysis into phonetics has resulted in their use for detailed study of many of the phenomena which are present in the sound wave or in the articulatory process at any given moment, and in the changes of these phenomena from moment to moment.

Expiration is the movement of the air freely coming out from the lungs through the airways to the external environment during breathing. During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upward, causing compression of the lungs and that is why the air comes out.

Speech sounds are based on expiration. Expiration during which speech sounds are produced is called phonic expiration. It differs from ordinary biological non-phonic expiration. In phonic expiration the air comes from the lungs not freely but in spurts because the speech organs often block the air passage. The lungs are the source of energy. They supply the air pressure and at the same time they regulate the force of the air pressure.

Explosion/ plosion is the sudden release of occluded air characteristically occurring in the articulation of certain stop consonants. The stop consonants are called stops because the breath is completely stopped at some point articulation and then it is released with a slight explosion

Examples:

1. nasal plosion: hidden, couldn't, button

2. lateral plosion: little, bottle, middle

3. fricative plosion: gypsy, shops, fretful

4. loss of plosion: stop dreaming, great trouble

Facultative phonemes are such phonemes in English as not used in all idiolects, where they are replaced. But in those idiolects in which they are used they may dis­tinguish words in minimal pairs

e.g. which — который, witch — ведьма, more — больше, maw — пасть.

Fall. is lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable. Falling tone is devided into: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall-Rise. Roughly speaking the falling tone of any level and range expresses "certainty", "completeness", "indepen­dence". Thus a straight-forward statement normally ends with a falling tone since it asserts a fact of which the speaker is certain. It has an air of finality, e.g.

Where's John? — He hasn't come yet.

What’s the time? — It's nearly 'five o’clock.

The Low Fall. The voice falls from the low(medium) pitch level to the bottom of the pich.

Ex: It was a difficult case.

The High Fall. The voice falls all the way down from a high to the owest note possible.

Ex: What nonsense!

Family of sounds. Daniel Jones defined a family of sounds in a given language,

consisting of an important sound of the language together with other related sounds, which

take its place in a particular sound-sequence as the phoneme.

Faucal consonants are occlusive noise conso­nants which are articulated by the soft palate raised against the back wall of the pharynx, which is accompanied by a nasal plosion and results in opening the nasal cavity for the flow of air.

Examples: in the Russian: obman, odnako ; in English: cotton, button

The fixed organs of speech are the teeth, the teeth ridge(alveolar ridge), the hard palate, and the nasal cavity. All the movable speech organs can create obstructionrs to the exhaled airstream by approaching or touching each other or the fixed organs. The obstruction is the source of consonantal sounds. The teeth and hard palate are the obstructive surfaces for the tongue and upper lip. With the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth labio-dental consonants[f,v] are articulated. With the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palat palatal consonants are made [j] The nasal cavity serves as a resonator, which, when closed, imparts a nasal quality to a sound: [n] ,[m], [ŋ]. When the teeth are the obstacle the interdental consonants are produced: [ð, θ]. If the tip of the tongue is pressed to the alveolar ridge alveolar consonants are articulated [t,d,s,z,l].

Fixed word accent. Languages are also differentiated according to the placement of word stress. The traditional classification of languages con­cerning place of stress in a word is into those with a fixed stress and those with a free stress. In languages .with a fixed stress the occurrence of the word stress is limited to a particular syllable in a multisyllabic word. For instance, in French the stress falls on the last syllable of the word (if pronounced in isolation), in Fin­nish and Czech it is fixed on the first syllable, in Polish on the one but last syllable. Some foreign words borrowed into Russian and proper names retain the original stresses and give an idea of the fixed word stress, e.g.

French: Париж, кашне, партер

Finnish: Хельсинки, сауна

Czech: Злата Прага, Карловы Вары

Polish: Варшава, Катовице, Познань.

Free word accent. Languages are also differentiated according to the placement of word stress. The traditional classification of languages con­cerning place of stress in a word is into those with a fixed stress and those with a free stress. In languages with a free stress its place is nol confined to a specific posilion in the word. In one word it may fall on the first syllable, in another on the second syllable, in the third word — on the last syllable, etc.

The free placement of stress is exemplified in the English and Russian languages, e.g.

English: ‘appetite — be’ginning — ba’lloon

Russian: ‘озеро — по’года — моло’ко

The word siress in English as well as in Russian is not only free but it may also be shifting, performing the semantic function of differentiating lexical units, parts of speech, grammatical forms. It is worth noting that in English word stress is used as a means of word-building, in Russian it marks both word-building and word formation, e.g.

’contrast — con'trast

'habit — ha’bitual

'music — mu'sician

Flapped consonant is a type of consonantal sound, articulated by a single tap of the tip of the tongue against the teethridge .A flap is similar to a brief stop. Examples of flaps:

1. Alveolar flaps.

In American and Australian English it tends to be an allophone of intervocalic [t] as in "butter," "latter," "fattest" and "total", [r] in “sorry”, “very”

2. Lateral flaps

Lateral flaps may be more common than much of the literature would lead one to believe. Many of the languages of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific that don't distinguish [r] from [l] may have a lateral flap, but this is generally missed by European linguists, who often aren't familiar with the sound

Flat narrowing is a condition in the mouth cavity(?) when the constrictive noise consonants (fricatives) are articulated the complete obstruction is slowly removed forming a flat narrowing, through which air passes with friction

Flow of air. The airstream involves the passage of air from the lungs out through the oral and nasal cavities. There are many points at which that stream of air can be modified, and several ways in which it can be modified. The first point at which the flow of air can be modified, as it passes from the lungs, is in the larynx, in which are located the vocal cords. The vocal cords may lie open, in which case the airstream passes through them unimpeded. To produce any kind of sound their must movement of air, the movement of air must pass though the vocal chords, up through the throat and, into the mouth or nose to then leave the body. What forms the different sounds and allows people to create different words is though the different position's of the mouth

Focus (foci) is the place in the mouth cavity,in which the obstruction (complete or incomplete) is formed in the articulation of a consonant. Front secondary focus is formed by the middle part of the tongue raised against the hard palate. Back secondary focus is formed by the back part of the tongue raised against the soft palate.

Forelingual are sounds which articulated by the tip or the blade of the tongue raised against the upper teeth or the teethridge. They differ in to the position of the tip of the tongue. According to its work they may be:

-apical, if the tip of the tongue is activ [t, d, n, l,s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ð, θ, d ʒ, t ʃ]

-dorsal, if the blade of the tongue takes part in the articulation, the tip being passive and lowered as in the case of the Russian [т, т’, д, д’, н, н’, с, с’, з, з’, ч’, ц]; in English there are no dorsal consonants

-cacuminal, if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but a depression is formed in the blade of the tongue as in the of the English [r] and the Russian [p, p’]

Fortis means strong. Fortis Consonants are voiceless plosives and constrictives, which are pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effort

E.g. : [f, p,t, k, s, h, θ, ʒ]

Free Accentual variants are variants of individual pronunciation — interidmlectal variants.

E.g. 'hos­pitable/ hos'pitabte, ‘рапорт/ ра’порт.

Free variations are the sounds both occur in a language but the speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them, they are interidiolectal variations which are spontaneous, unintentional, non-functional, non-distinctiv., as for example in the case of the Russian шкаф — шкап, калоши — галоши. In such cases we must take them as free vari­ants of a single phoneme

Examples from English:

• glottalization of voiceless stops in word-final position: for example, the word stop may be pronounced with a plain unaspirated [p] or with a glottalized [p]

• the comparative of many disyllabic adjectives can be formed either with the word more or with the suffix -er, for example more stupid or stupider.

Fricative consonants. Constrictive noise consonants are called fricative consonants or fricatives, i.e. the consonant sounds in the articulation of which the air passage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction.

The english fricatives [f, v, ð, θ, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h]. Fricative may also differ in the work of the vocal cords and in the degree of force of articulation. According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiced [v, ð, z, ʒ] and voiceless [h, ʃ, θ s, f,]. According to the degree of force of articulation voiced consonants are lenis (weak), voiceless consonants are fortis (strong).

Frictionless consonants is the term may be used in reference to constrictive sonants [w, r, j], which are pronounced with little noise and can be prolonged or continued. A consonant having the articulation of a fricative but pronounced with weak force so that little or no friction is audible.

Front of the tongue is the position of the tongue in the mouth. The tongue may move forward and backward, up and down, changing the quality of vowel sounds. When the tongue moves forward various parts of it may be raised in the direction of the palate. The front position of the tongue makes it rise higher in the mouth cavity. When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised to the hard palate a front vowel is pronounced [i: , e, æ]. When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but slightly retracted, and the part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front is raised, a front-retracted vowel is pronounced [I].

Front-retracted vowels. The tongue may move forward and backward, up and down, changing the quality of vowel sounds. According to the horizontal movement phoneticians distinguish five classes of English vowels. They are:

1. front

2. front-retracted

3. central

4. back

5. back-advanced

When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but slightly retracted, and the part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front is raised, a front-retracted vowel is pronounced [I], [I(ə)]. The side rims of the tongue make a slight contact with the upper teeth. The tongue is lax. The lips are loosely spread, the mouth is slightly in.

The vowel [I] is longer in the open syllable when it is free. It is shorter in the closed syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. It is checked and much shorter in the stressed closed syllable ending in a strong voiceless consonant, e.g. river – pig – sit

Front vowels. The tongue may move forward and backward, up and down, changing the quality of vowel sounds. According to the horizontal movement phoneticians distinguish five classes of English vowels. They are:

6. front

7. front-retracted

8. central

9. back

10. back-advanced

When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised to the hard palate a front vowel is pronounced [i: , e, æ].

Pronouncing [e] the tongue is in the front part of the mouth, the front of the tongue is raised to the hard palate. The side rims of the tongue make a slight contact with the upper teeth. The lips are loosely spread. The vowel [e] is longer in the closed syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. . It is checked and much shorter in the stressed closed syllable ending in a strong voiceless consonant, e.g. bed – bet

Pronouncing [æ] the tongue is in the front part of the mouth, the front of the tongue is rather low in the mouth. The side rims of the of the tongue make a very slight contact with the back upper teeth. The vowel appears to be much longer before weak consonants, especially before [b, d, g, dʒ, m, n] in this position it is almost equivalent in quantity to the longest variants of [i:, a:, u:, ɔ:, ɜ:], e.g. lad – saw, man – car

Articulating [i:] the tongue is in the front part of the mouth, the front of the tongue is rather high in the mouth. The vowel is noticeably diphongized, especially in open syllables. The tongue glides from a position nearer to the English vowel [I] to a more advanced and high position. The tongue is tense, the side rims of the of the tongue make a firm contact with the upper teeth. The vowel [i:] is definitely longer in the open syllable when it is free. It is shorter in the closed syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. It is checked and much shorter in the stressed closed syllable ending in a strong voiceless consonant, e.g. be – bead – beat.

Fully voiced consonants are consonants which pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating from the first to the last stage of their articulation.

E.g : [b, d, g] in initial position, voicing begins sometime during the occlusion of the consonant : bed, dog, green, moon

Functional means phonological, connected with different functions.

E.g. functional phonetics, functional view of the phoneme (regards the phoneme as the minimal sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated without much regard to actually pronounced speech sounds.)

Functional phonetics is the branch of pho­netics which studies the purely linguistic aspect of speech sounds. Studies the way in which sound phenomena function in a particular language, how they are utilized in that language and what part they play in manifesting the meaningful distinctions of the language. So this is the branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structure, word accent and prosodic features, such as pitch, stress and tempo. In linguistics, function is usually understood to mean discriminatory function, that is, the role of the various elements of the language in the distinguishing of one sequence of sounds, such as a word or a sequence of words, from another of different meaning.