3 Часть.
Descending scale — gradual lowering of the voice pitch. ( 'John is \very busy)
Descriptive Phonetics — studies the con-temporary phonetic system of a language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic units of this language. (ex. Phonetic of Russian language, of French)
Devoice - to pronounce with the vocal cords switched cut. Voiced consonants are gradually devoiced in the terminal position and under the influence of the adjacent voiceless consonant (not so much as in the Russianlanguage). (the final [b] in Bob, for example) (big toy)
diachronic approach - Diachronic linguistics concerns language in its historical development (Greek dia - through, chronos - time). Historical linguistics is known as diachronic or temporal linguistics and deals with the development of language through time. analysis of the phenomena which refer to different periods of development
Diacritical marks are symbols added to letters of the alphabet to indicate different pronunciation than the letters are usually given. This article describes the most common diacritical symbols, as well as some punctuation marks commonly used in French, Italian, and Spanish. (umlaut - a diacritical mark (two dots) placed over a vowel in German to indicate a change in sound)
Dialectology is a branch of sociolinguistics that studies the systematic variants of a language. Dialectal variation is present in most language areas and often has important social implications. (American English, Scottish language)
diaphone is a phoneme viewed through its dialectal variants, called diaphonic variants or diaphonic allophones. For example, the vowel that constitutes the English word eye /aɪ/ is pronounced diaphonically as [aɪ̯] in RP, as [ae̯] or [əi̯] in Scottish English, as [ɑɪ̯] in Australian English, as [ɔɪ̯] in Irish English, as a pure vowel [aː] in South African English, and as [aː] or [əi̯] in Southern American English.
Diaphragm , a thin, semi-rigid membrane that vibrates to produce or transmit sound waves. that part of the power mechanism whichseparates the cavity of the chest from the abdominal cavity.
Diction - the accent, inflection, intonation, and speech- sound qualitymanifested by an individual speaker, usually judged in terms of prevailing standards of acceptability.
Digraph - a pair of characters used together to represent a single sound, such as "sh" in English. combination of two letters equivalent to one phoneme. For example: ее, sh /J/, th
Dimunition of intensity – lowering of the voice intensity, which results from the gradual weakening of the vocal cords vibration.
Diphtong a vowel phoneme which consists of two ele-ments: a nucleus and a glide. The first element of a diphthong is more loud anddistinct, the formation of the second element of a diphthong is not accom- plished. English diphthongs can he normal — this term is used because they aresimilar to the diphthongs normally occurring in other languages: /ei, ai, аи, au/ and centring: /ia, еэ, ээ, ua/ — they are called so because their glide/a/ is considered to be a central vowel
Diphthongization - slight shifting of the organs of speech position within the articulation of one and the same vowel (theseorgans are mostly — the tongue, the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the sound during its articulation. as in see /sii/,Diphthongization is less noticeable before voiceless stops as in beat /bit/,
In the pronunciation of diphthongoids the articulation is slightly changing but the difference between the starting point and the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs.
They are – [i: u:]
Discrepancy – non-coincidence, divergence of proper-ties. For example, the word
Stretch consists of:5 phonemes /s/ t /r/ /e/ /tf /5 graphemes s — t — r — e — tch7 letters s — t — r — e — t — с — h
Disjunctive question - consists of two parts. The first part is a declarative sentence (a statement). The second part is a short general question (the tag). If the statement is affirmative, the tag is negative. If the statement is negative, the tag is affirmative. Use falling intonation in the first part and rising or falling intonation in the second part of the tag question. (It is dark, isn’t it?)
Dissimilation - A general term in phonetics for the process by which two neighboring sounds become less alike. Contrast with assimilation. A phenomenon whereby similar consonant or vowel sounds in a word become less similar, resulting in a form that is easier for the listener to perceive.
Distinctive function of speech sounds - consists in distinguishing one sequence of sounds (words, sentences, texts) from another with a different meaning (e.g. back – bag: due to the force of articulation we can differentiate between the meaning = fortis /k/ and lenis /g/).
distributional analysis - phonological analysis to determine if several phonetic sounds are the variants of the same phoneme or if they are different phonemes.
Disyllabic - A word with two syllables. (pu-blic)
Dorsal consonants pronounced with the bladethe tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge. For example:Russian /T/.
Dorsum of the tongue – back of the tongue, part which lies opposite the soft palate.
Double stress - Most words of more than four syllables have 2 stresses: primary and entry. The primary stress falls either on the third or the second syllable from the end and the secondary stress falls on the syllable separated from the nuclear syllable by one unstressed syllable: pro-ition, reco-gnition, etc.
Drawl - to speak or utter (words) slowly, prolonging the vowel sounds. (We-e-ell - the clerk drawled)
Duration – Length. Can be transcribed by doubling of letters , or using length marks [:]
A dynamic accent force accent based mainlyon the expiratory effort
Ear training - is a skill by which people learn to identify, solely by hearing, pitches, intervals, rhythms, and other basic elements of music. The application of this skill is analogous to taking dictation in written/spoken language.
The rims of the tongue - the edges of the tongue
Elision - is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a consonant, or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce Example 'I don't know' /I duno/ , /kamra/ for camera, and 'fish 'n' chips' are all examples of elision.
Emphasis - Prominence given to a syllable, word, or words, as by raising the voice.