The Middle English and the Modern English Periods

1. Development of the Classical Middle English

1. Historical Background of the development of English from the 11th to the 15th centuries

2. Linguistic Situation

3. "Classical" Middle English

2. Development of the National Literary English language

   1. Economic and political unification. Conditions for linguistic unity

   2. Progress of culture. Introduction of printing

   3. Foreign contacts and expansion of English

   4. Establishment of the Written Standards

3. Spelling Changes in Middle English. Rules of Reading

4. Evolution of the Sound System from the 11^th to the 18^th centuries.

5. Evolution of the Grammatical System from the 11^th to the 18^th centuries.

6. Development of the English Vocabulary from the 12^th to the 19^th centuries.

1. Development of the Classical Middle English

Historical Background of the development of English from the 11th to the 15th с.

The Old English period in the history of the language corresponds to the traditional stage from the slave-owing and tribal system to the feudal system in the history of Britain. In the 11^th century feudalism was already well established. According to the survey made in late 11^th century slaves and freeman were declining classes. The majority of the agricultural population was bound to their lord and land. Under natural economy, characteristic of feudalism, most of the things needed for the life of the lord and the villain were produced on the estate. Feudal manors were separated from their neighbours by tolls, local feuds, and various restrictions concerning settlement, travelling and employment. These historical conditions produced a certain influence on the development of the language. In Early Middle English the difference between the regional dialects grew. Never in history was the historical background more favourable for dialectical differentiation. The main dialectal division in England goes back to the feudal stage of British history. It survived in later ages with some slight modification of boundaries and considerable dialect mixture. In the age of poor communication dialect boundaries often coincided with geographical barriers such as rivers, marshes, forests and mountains. These barriers would hinder the diffusion of linguistic features. In addition to economic, geographical and social conditions, dialectal differences in Early Middle English were accentuated by some historical events, namely the Scandinavian invasion and the Norman Conquest. Though the Scandinavian invasion of England is dated in the Old English period, its effect on the language is particular apparent in Middle English. In the areas of the heaviest settlement the Scandinavians outnumbered the Anglo=Saxon population. This fact is attested by geographical names. Altogether more than 1,400 English villages and towns bear names of Scandinavian origin with the element –thorp, meaning "village" (Woodthorp, Linthorp); with the element –toft, meaning "a piece of land" (Brimtoft, Lowestoft). Probably in many districts people became bilingual, with either Old Norse or English prevailing. Eventually the Scandinavians were absorbed into the local population both ethnically and linguistically. They merged with the society around them, but the impact on the linguistic situation and on the further development of the English language was quite profound.

In the battle of Hastings fought in October 1066, Harold Godwin King of England was killed and the English were defeated. This date is commonly known as the date of the Norman Conquest, though the military occupation of the country was not completed within a few years later. The Norman Conquest was not only a great event in British political history, but also the greatest single event in the history if the English language. Its earliest effect was a drastic change in the linguistic situation. The Norman Conquest of England had originally come from Scandinavia. About one hundred and fifty years before they had seized the valley of the Seine and settled in what was henceforth known as Normandy. They were swiftly assimilated by the French and in the 11^th century came to Britain as French speakers and bearers of French culture. They spoke the Norman dialect of French. It differed in some points from Central, Parisian French. Their tongue in Britain is often referred to as "Anglo-French" or "Anglo-Norman". But it may just as well be called French, since we are less concerned here with the distinction of French dialects than with the continuous French influence upon English, both in the Norman period of history and a long while after the Anglo-Norman language had ceased to exist.

Linguistic Situation

The most immediate consequences of the Norman domination in Britain are to be seen in the wide use of the French language in many spheres of life. For almost for three hundred years French was the official language of administration. It was the language of the king's court, the law court, the church, the army and the castle. It was also the everyday language of many nobles, of the higher clergy and of many towns-people in the South. The intellectual life, literature and education were in the hands of French-speaking people. French, alongside Latin, was the language of writing. Teaching was largely conducted in French and boys at school were taught to translate their Latin into French instead of English. For all that, England never stopped being an English-speaking country. The bulk of population held fast to their own tongue. They continued to speak English and looked upon French as foreign and hostile. Since most of the people were illiterate, the English language was almost exclusively used for spoken communication. At first the two languages existed side by side without mingling. Then they began to permeate each other. The Norman barons and the French town-dwellers had to pick up English words to make them understood, while the English began to use French words in current speech. A good knowledge of French would mark a person of higher standing giving him a certain social prestige. Probably people became bilingual and had a fair command of both languages.

These peculiar linguistic conditions could not remained static. The struggle between French and English was bound to end in the complete victory of English, for English was the living language of the entire people, while French was restricted to certain social spheres and to writing. Yet, the final victory was still a long way off. In the 13^th century only a few steps were made in that direction. The earliest sign of the official recognition of English by the Norman kings was the famous Proclamation issued by Henry III in 1258 to the councilors in Parliament. It was written in three languages: French, Latin and English.

The early French borrowings reflect accurately the spheres of Norman influence upon English life. Later borrowings can be attributed to the continued cultural, economic and political contacts between the countries. The French influence added new features to the regional and social differentiation of the language. New words coming from French could not be adopted simultaneously by all the speakers of English. They were first used in some varieties of the language, namely in the regional dialects of Southern England and in the speech of the upper classes, but they were unknown in the other varieties. This led to growing dialectal differences, regional and social. The use of a foreign tongue as the state language, the diversity of the dialects and the decline of the written form of English created a situation extremely favourable for increased variation and for more intensive linguistic change.

"Classical" Middle English

The flourishing of literature marks the second half of the 14^th century. Apart from its cultural significance it testifies to be the complete reestablishment of English as the language of writing. Some authors wrote in their local dialect from outside London, but most of them used the London dialect, or forms of the language combining London and provincial traits. Towards the end of the century the London dialect had become the principal type of language used in literature. It was a sort of literary "pattern" to be imitated by provincial authors. The literary texts of the late 14^th century preserved in numerous manuscripts, belong to a variety of genres. Translations continued, but original compositions were produced in abundance. Poetry was more prolific than prose. This period of literary florescence is known as the "Age of Chaucer", the greatest name in English literature before Shakespeare. Other writers are referred to as "Chaucer's contemporaries". Chaucer wrote in a dialect which in the main coincided with that used in documents produced in London shortly before his time and for a long time after. Although he did not really create the literary language, as a poet of outstanding talent he made better use of it than his contemporaries. He set up a pattern to be followed in the 15^th century. His poems were copied so many times that over sixty manuscripts of "The Canterbury Tales" have survived to this day. Chaucer's books were among the first to be printed, a hundred years after their composition. Chaucer's literary language based on the mixed (largely East Midland) London dialect is known as classical Middle English. In the 15^th and 16^th centuries it became the basis of the National literary English language.