Timeline

Historical movements in Japan's fine arts, such as architecture, painting, and sculpture, may be classified into the following periods:

Formative period (c. 7500 B.C.-mid-sixth century A.D.)

Japan's prehistoric culture can be divided into three periods. The Jomon period (c. 7500 B.C.-c. 300 B.C. 縄文 【じょうもん】 (n) Jomon period, straw-rope pattern) is so called after the cord pattern often found on the ‘Neo’lithic ‘earthenware (глиняная посуда, гончарные изделия) from that period. This is generally unpainted pottery distinguished by relatively rough vessel (сосуд) shapes and sharp re’lief decoration. Other artifacts from the period include highly stylized clay figurines (статуэтка) known as dogu (土偶 【どぐう】 (n) earthen (clay) figure).

The Yayoi period (c. 300 B.C.-c. A.D. 300) produced earthenware pottery displaying a more reserved and sophisticated (лишённый простоты, естественности, наивности; изощрённый, утончённый) aes’thetic characterized by perfected shapes and light, geometric decoration. Also dating from this period are bell-shaped bronzes known as doutaku, which were probably derived from Korean musical instruments and are thought to have functioned as symbols of authority.

The Kofun, or Tumulus (могильный холм, курган), period (c. A.D. 300-c. A.D. 500) is named for the mound (насыпь; могильный холм, курган)-covered tombs of clan chieftains (вождь) built during these centuries, which saw the gradual consolidation (объединение) of central authority. Artifacts from these tombs, including armor and a variety of ornamental objects, reflect close contact with the Korean Peninsula during the period. The tombs were bordered by clay cylinders called haniwa, which were often mounted by simple but expressive clay sculptures, usually of human and animal forms.

Asuka and Hakuho periods (552-710)

The introduction of Buddhism into Japan in 538 also brought many architects from the Korean Peninsula with new techniques reflecting the Chinese (Northern Wei) style of Buddhist architecture. Horyuji, a temple in Nara whose main hall and pa’goda date back to the Asuka period, was built in this style. Sculpture in the Chinese style also flourished, as Buddhist images were in great demand for worship. The 17th meeting of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's World Heritage Committee, held in December 1993,placed the Buddhist architecture of the Horyuji area on the World Heritage List.

Nara period (710-794)

Japanese culture during this period was characterized by stable and balanced proportions and by an emphasis on structure over ornamentation. The lecture hall of Toshodaiji, a temple in Nara, is one of the finest present representations of this style. Sculpture from this period, generally of clay or dry ‘lacquer, is characterized by an idealized, "classic" realism. The group of dry-lacquer sculptures in Kofukuji, another temple in Nara, is an excellent example of Nara sculpture.

Heian period (794-1185)

During these four centuries Japan moved away from the direct influence of continental culture as a Japanese-style aristocratic culture grew up. In 794 the nation's capital was moved to Heiankyo (now Kyoto), and large-scale civil engineering and construction projects were undertaken to build the new me’tropolis. Art during the ninth century was dominated by esoteric (эзотерический, тайный, скрытый; известный или понятный лишь посвящённым) Buddhism, whose complex cosmology was depicted in ‘mandalas (any of various designs symbolizing the universe, usually circular). Later esoteric Buddhism gave way to the Jodo (Pure Land, 浄土 【じょうど】Buddhist sect, faith in rebirth in the Western Heaven of the Buddha Amitabha) sect. One of the architectural masterpieces of the latter period is the ‘Phoenix Hall of Byodoin temple, which presents an image of a Buddhist paradise based on the teachings of the Jodo sect. This period also saw major developments in yamato-e, or ‘secular (мирской, земной) Japanese-style painting, most notably emaki (illustrated scrolls),which matched pictures to the unfolding of a story in poetry or prose. During the next period emaki further developed and flourished as pictorial narratives of wars and illustrated biographies.

Kamakura period (1185-1333)

The warrior class, which had wrested (вырывать (силой)) political power from the no’bility, turned to the Zen sect of Buddhism, introduced from Sung-dynasty China, for its spiritual underpinnings (обоснование; основа). Consequently Zen strongly influenced the culture of that period, when Kamakura was Japan's capital. Many Zen temples were built, of which typical examples are Kenchoji and Engakuji temples in Kamakura. Meanwhile, the Nara style was revived (оживлять) with realistic portrait sculpture as well as Buddhist sculpture. In the sphere of painting as well, portraits, called nise-e (偽【にせ】 imitation, lie, falsehood, false,), appeared. Among the masterpieces remaining to this day are portraits of Minamoto no Yoritomo and Taira no Shigemori attributed to Fujiwara Takanobu.

Muromachi period (1333-1573)

The nation's political and cultural center then moved back to Kyoto from Kamakura, and the warrior culture adopted aspects of the culture of nobles and Buddhist priests that had blossomed in Kyoto. The third shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, built Kinkakuji (Golden Pavilion) temple and its surrounding garden. During this period landscape gardening reached its peak of perfection, and many famous gardens with ponds and miniature hills designed by such Zen priests as Muso Soseki still remain. This period also produced the kare-sansui (枯れ山水【かれさんすい】 traditional (Chinese or Japanese) dry landscape garden) style of symbolic gardening, in which, for example, white sand represents water and rocks depict mountains. An excellent example is the famous rock garden of Ryoanji (the Temple of the Peaceful), a temple in Kyoto. In December 1994, 17 Kyoto temples and shrines, including Byodoin, Kinkakuji, and Ryoanji, were placed on UNESCO's World Heritage List.

Domestic architecture during the Muromachi period witnessed the perfection of the shoin-zukuri style (書院造り 【しょいんづくり】 (n) traditional style of Japanese residential architecture), which is the predecessor of the style of the present-day Japanese house with tatami mats covering floors. Chinese-influenced ink painting flourished, reaching a peak in the work of Sesshu Toyo.

From about this time, with the completion of the shoin-zukuri style of residential architecture, ikebana and the tea ceremony also became popular. As traditional forms of Japanese culture, ikebana and the tea ceremony are still popular among people today and have attracted attention overseas, as well.

Momoyama period (1573-1603)

The period of civil struggle among Japan's feudal clans that had continued since the latter half of the fifteenth century came to an end with the unification of the nation by Oda Nobunaga. After his death, Toyotomi Hideyoshi seized (завладевать, захватывать) the reins of government. Trade with Europe expanded rapidly under Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, and Western culture was introduced in many fields. Warrior lords built castles, which they decorated with painted folding screens and sliding doors, characterized by bold designs and the wasteful use of gold leaf.

Meanwhile, merchants who assembled wealth through overseas trade increased their social influence and began to contribute greatly to the development and spread of culture. A good example is the popularization of the tea ceremony, which led to the development of sukiya-zukuri (数寄屋造り【すきやづくり】sukiya style of building, style of a tea-ceremony arbor), an architectural style exclusively for tea ceremony purposes. This style is still used in architecture today. Ceramic objects used in the tea ceremony also flourished with the introduction of new techniques from the Korean Peninsula. The castle at Himeji, which was constructed in this period, was also placed on the World Heritage List in December 1993.

Edo period (1603-1868)

During this 265-year period the merchant class became a central force in cultural development under the firmly established Tokugawa shogunate, which enforced a policy of national isolation. A merchant-class culture developed in the commercial centers of Osaka and Edo (now Tokyo). The latter city became the country's political hub. Kyoto, however, retained (held) and further developed its traditional culture. For instance, the Katsura Imperial Villa constructed near Kyoto in 1624 represents the peak of shoin-zukuri architecture. Ogata Korin developed a style of heavily pigmented decorative painting (rinpa) and also designed many beautiful objects in gold ornamented lacquer, or maki-e (蒔絵【まきえ】gold or silver lacquer, lacquer decoration sprinkled with metal powder). Bunjinga (文人画 【ぶんじんが】style of Southern Chinese painting), a style of ink painting influenced by the literati painting of China's Ming dynasty, flourished under the lead of such masters as Ike no Taiga and Tanomura Chikuden.

Maruyama Okyo developed an eclectic (selecting what seems best from various styles), synthetic style of lyric realism that was to have a profound influence on later developments. In Edo ukiyo-e (woodblock prints of everyday life, 浮世絵 【うきよえ】 (color print of everyday life in Edo period)) became very popular among the common people in the mid-eighteenth century. Thus followed the golden age of ukiyo-e, characterized by colorful prints of actors and beautiful women. During this time Katsushika Hokusai and Ando Hiroshige adopted the Western method of drawing in perspective introduced by such painters as Shiba Kokan through Nagasaki, the only port open to foreign trade. Their landscapes opened a new phase in ukiyo-e.

Meiji period to present (1868-)

Full-scale contact with Western art following the Meiji Restoration (восстановление, реконструкция, реставрация) created in Japan a new tradition of Western-style painting (洋画【ようが】 Western paintings), mainly in oils, in addition to influencing the time-honored Japanese style of painting (Nihonga). European methods of carving were also introduced. In 1898 Okakura Kakuzo (Tenshin) founded the Japan Fine Arts Academy, which through its exhibitions tried to reform and further develop Japanese-style painting. Meanwhile, three Italian teachers invited to Japan by the national Technical Fine Arts School in 1876 laid the foundation of Western-style painting and sculpture in Japan. Many master painters and sculptors emerged after that, some of them receiving their training abroad, mainly in France.

Contemporary Japanese art has been strongly influenced by postwar American pop art and other art forms. Nowadays Western art and sculpture, which have reached international levels, and traditional Japanese painting and calligraphy exist side by side and have a mutual influence on each other.

In architecture too, Western styles have spread rapidly since the Meiji era. Today Japanese cities are dominated by forests of modern skyscrapers, some of them employing traditional Japanese design here and there.

Reference: Robert Paine and Alexander Soper, The Art and Architecture of Japan, Pelican History of Art, Penguin Books, 1975.