5. Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland (Irish: Tuaisceart Éireann, Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlann) is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west. At the time of the 2001 UK Census, its population was 1,685,000, constituting about 30% of the island's total population and about 3% of the population of the United Kingdom.

Northern Ireland consists of six of the nine counties of the Irish province of Ulster. It was created as a distinct division of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, though its constitutional roots lie in the 1800 Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland. For over 50 years it had its own devolved government and parliament. These institutions were suspended in 1972 and abolished in 1973. Repeated attempts to restore self-government finally resulted in the establishment of the present-day Northern Ireland Executive and Northern Ireland Assembly. The Assembly operates on consociational democracy principles requiring cross-community support.

Northern Ireland was for many years the site of a violent and bitter ethno-political conflict — the Troubles — which was caused by divisions between nationalists, who are predominantly Roman Catholic, and unionists, who are predominantly Protestant. Unionists want Northern Ireland to remain as a part of the United Kingdom, while nationalists wish for it to be politically reunited with the rest of Ireland, independent of British rule. Since the signing of the "Good Friday Agreement" in 1998, most of the paramilitary groups involved in the Troubles have ceased their armed campaigns.

Due to its unique history, the issue of the symbolism, name and description of Northern Ireland is complex, and similarly the issue of citizenship and identity. In general, Unionists consider themselves British and Nationalists see themselves as Irish, though these identities are not necessarily mutually exclusive.

Background

Signing of the Ulster Covenant in 1912 in opposition to Home Rule

The region that is now Northern Ireland served as the bedrock of Irish war of resistance against English programmes of colonialism in the late 16th century. The English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland had been declared by the English king, Henry VII, in 1542 but Irish resistance made English rule in Ireland impossible. The programmes of colonialism were intended as a means to extend English rule in Ireland. Following Irish defeat at the Battle of Kinsale, the region's Gaelic (and Roman Catholic) aristocracy fled to continental Europe in 1607 and the region became subject to major programmes of colonialism by Protestant English (mainly Anglican) and Scottish (mainly Presbyterian) settlers. In the century between 1610 and 1717 perhaps as many as 100,000 Lowlanders came across from Scotland, and by the latter date there were some five Scots to every three Irishmen and one Englishman in Ulster. A rebellion in 1641 by Irish aristocrats against English rule descended into a massacre of settlers in Ulster in the context of an out-breaking a war between England, Scotland and Ireland fueled by religious intolerance in government. Victories by English forces in that war and further a Protestant victory in a another war on similar themes at the close of the 16th century, solidified Anglican rule in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the iconic victories of the Siege of Derry (1698) and the Battle of the Boyne (1690) in this latter war are still celebrated by the Unionist community (both Anglican and Presbyterian) today.

Following the victory of 1691, a series of laws intended to politically and materially deprive mainly the Catholic community, but also the Presbyterian community, of power were implemented by the Anglican ruling class in Ireland. In the context of open institutional discrimination, the18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in communities in the region and act out on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. These events escalated at the end of the century following an events know as the Battle of the Diamond, which saw the supremacy of the Anglican and Presbyterian Peep o'Day Boys over the Catholic Defenders and leading to the formation of the (Anglican) Orange Order. A rebellion in 1798 led by the cross-community Belfast-based Society of the United Irishmen and inspired by the French Revolution sought to break the constitutional ties between Ireland with Britain and unite Irishmen and women of all communities. Following this, in an attempt to quell sectarianism and force the removal of discriminatory laws (and to prevent the spread of French-style republicanism to Ireland), the government of the Kingdom of Britain push for the two kingdoms to be merged. The new state, formed in 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was governed from a single government and parliament based in London.

Between 1717 and 1775 some 250,000 people from Ulster emigrated to the American colonies.[12] It is estimated that there are more than 27 million descendants of the Scots-Irish migration now living in the U.S.

Partition of Ireland

Following this, those who supported the continued union between Ireland and Great Britain are known as unionists. In what is now Northern Ireland, these were mainly Protestant (both Anglican and Presbyterian). During the 19th century, legal reforms started in the late 18th century removed legal discrimination against Catholics and progressive programmes enabled farmers to buy back land from landlords. By the close of the century, the possibility of autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom, known as home rule, was imminent. In 1912, it became a certainty. A clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over a controversial budget produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. The House of Lords veto had been unionists' main guarantee that home rule would not be enacted because the majority members of the House of Lords were unionist. In response, opponents to home rule, from Conservative Party leaders like Andrew Bonar Law and Dublin-based barrister Sir Edward Carson to militant unionists in Ireland, threatened the use of violence. In 1914, they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for the use by the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary organisation opposed to the implementation of home rule.

Unionists were in a minority on the island of Ireland as a whole, but were a majority in the northern province of Ulster and a very large majority in County Antrim and County Down, with small majorities in the County Armagh and County Londonderry. There were substantial numbers also concentrated in County Fermanagh and County Tyrone. These six counties would later constitute Northern Ireland.

Prime Ministers ofNorthern Ireland

Lord Craigavon (1922–1940)John Miller Andrews (1940–1943)Lord Brookeborough (1943–1963)Captain Terence O'Neill (1963–1969)James Chichester-Clark (1969–1971)Brian Faulkner (1971–1972)

Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme

In 1914, the Third Home Rule Act, which contained provision for a "temporary" partition of these six counties from the rest of Ireland, received the Royal Assent. However, its implementation was suspended before it came into effect owing to the outbreak of the First World War. The war was expected to last only a few weeks but in fact lasted four years. By the end of the war, the act was seen as unimplementable. Public opinion in the majority "nationalist" community (who sought for greater independence from Britain) had shifted during the war from a demand for home rule to full independence. In 1919, David Lloyd George proposed a new bill which would divide Ireland into two home rule areas: twenty-six counties being ruled from Dublin and six being ruled from Belfast. Straddling between these two areas, would be a shared Lord Lieutenant of Ireland who would appoint both governments and a Council of Ireland, which Lloyd George believed would evolve into an all-Ireland parliament. Events had however over taken government. In the general election of 1918, the pro-independence Sinn Féin won seventy-three of the one hundred and five parliamentary seats in Ireland and established an extrajudicial parliament in Ireland.

Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland in 1921 under the terms of Lloyd George's Government of Ireland Act 1920[16] during the war of independence between Ireland and Britain. At the conclusion of that war on 6 December 1922, under the terms of the resulting treaty, Northern Ireland provisionally became an autonomous part of the newly independent Irish Free State.

Northern Ireland

However, as expected, the Parliament of Northern Ireland resolved the following day to exercise its opt out at the earliest possible opportunity (one month later). Shortly afterwards, a commission was established to decide on the territorial boundaries between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. Owing to the out-break of civil war in the Free State, the work of the commission was delayed until 1925. Leaders in Dublin expected a substantial reduction in the territory of Northern Ireland, with nationalist areas moving to the Free State. However the commission decided against this and its report recommended that some small portions of land should be ceded from the Free State to Northern Ireland. To prevent argument, this report was suppressed and, in exchange for a waiver to the Free State's obligations to the UK's public debt and the dissolution of the Council of Ireland (sought by the Government of Northern Ireland), and the initial six-county border was maintained with minor changes.

Signature page of the Anglo-Irish Treaty

In June 1940, to encourage the Irish state to join with the Allies, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill indicated to the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera that the United Kingdom would push for Irish unity, but believing that Churchill could not deliver, de Valera declined the offer.[18] (The British did not inform the Government of Northern Ireland that they had made the offer to the Dublin government, and De Valera's rejection was not publicised until 1970).

The Ireland Act 1949 gave the first legal guarantee to the Parliament and Government that Northern Ireland would not cease to be part of the United Kingdom without consent of the majority of its citizens.

The Troubles, starting in the late 1960s, consisted of about thirty years of recurring acts of intense violence between elements of Northern Ireland's nationalist community (principally Roman Catholic) and unionist community (principally Protestant) during which 3,254 people were killed. The conflict was caused by the disputed status of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom and the discrimination against the nationalist minority by the dominant unionist majority. The violence was characterised by the armed campaigns of paramilitary groups, including the Provisional IRA campaign of 1969-1997 which was aimed at the end of British rule in Northern Ireland and the creation of a new "all-Ireland", "thirty-two county" Irish Republic, and the Ulster Volunteer Force, formed in 1966 in response to the perceived erosion of both the British character and unionist domination of Northern Ireland. The state security forces — the British Army and the police (the Royal Ulster Constabulary) - were also involved in the violence. The British government's point of view is that its forces were neutral in the conflict, trying to uphold law and order in Northern Ireland and the right of the people of Northern Ireland to democratic self-determination. Irish republicans regarded the state forces as "combatants" in the conflict, alleging collusion between the state forces and the loyalist paramilitaries as proof of this. The "Ballast" investigation by the Police Ombudsman has confirmed that British forces, and in particular the RUC, did collude with loyalist paramilitaries, were involved in murder, and did obstruct the course of justice when such claims had previously been investigated, although the extent to which such collusion occurred is still hotly disputed.

As a consequence of the worsening security situation, autonomous regional government for Northern Ireland was suspended in 1972. Alongside the violence, there was a political deadlock between the major political parties in Northern Ireland, including those who condemned violence, over the future status of Northern Ireland and the form of government there should be within Northern Ireland. In 1973, Northern Ireland held a referendum to determine if it should remain in the United Kingdom, or be part of a united Ireland. The vote went heavily in favour (98.9%) of maintaining the status quo with approximately 57.5% of the total electorate voting in support, but only 1% of Catholics voted following a boycott organised by the SDLP.

Recent history

Northern Ireland peace process

First Ministers deputy First Minsters

David Trimble (1999-2001) Seamus Mallon (1999-2001)

Reg Empey (acting) (2001) Mark Durkan (2001-2002)

David Trimble (2001-2002) Martin McGuinness (2007-)

Ian Paisley (2007-2008)

Peter Robinson (2008-)

Arlene Foster (acting) (2010)

The Troubles were brought to an uneasy end by a peace process which included the declaration of ceasefires by most paramilitary organisations and the complete decommissioning of their weapons, the reform of the police, and the corresponding withdrawal of army troops from the streets and from sensitive border areas such as South Armagh and Fermanagh, as agreed by the signatories to the Belfast Agreement (commonly known as the "Good Friday Agreement"). This reiterated the long-held British position, which had never before been fully acknowledged by successive Irish governments, that Northern Ireland will remain within the United Kingdom until a majority votes otherwise. Bunreacht na hÉireann, the constitution of the Irish state, was amended in 1999 to remove a claim of the "Irish nation" to sovereignty over the whole of Ireland (in Article 2), a claim qualified by an acknowledgement that Ireland could only exercise legal control over the territory formerly known as the Irish Free State. The new Articles 2 and 3, added to the Constitution to replace the earlier articles, implicitly acknowledge that the status of Northern Ireland, and its relationships within the rest of the United Kingdom and with Ireland, would only be changed with the agreement of a majority of voters in both jurisdictions (Ireland voting separately). This aspect was also central to the Belfast Agreement which was signed in 1998 and ratified by referendums held simultaneously in both Northern Ireland and the Republic. At the same time, the British Government recognised for the first time, as part of the prospective, the so-called "Irish dimension": the principle that the people of the island of Ireland as a whole have the right, without any outside interference, to solve the issues between North and South by mutual consent. The latter statement was key to winning support for the agreement from nationalists and republicans. It also established a devolved power-sharing government within Northern Ireland where the government must consist of both unionist and nationalist parties.

These institutions were suspended by the British Government in 2002 after Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) allegations of spying by people working for Sinn Féin at the Assembly (Stormontgate). The resulting case against the accused Sinn Féin member collapsed.

On 28 July 2005, the Provisional IRA declared an end to its campaign and has since decommissioned what is thought to be all of its arsenal. This final act of decommissioning was performed in accordance with the Belfast Agreement of 1998, and under the watch of the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning and two external church witnesses. Many unionists, however, remain sceptical. This IRA decommissioning is in contrast to Loyalist paramilitaries who have so far refused to decommission many weapons. It is not thought that this will have a major effect on further political progress as political parties linked to Loyalist paramilitaries do not attract significant support and will not be in a position to form part of a government in the near future. Sinn Féin, on the other hand, with their (real and perceived) links to militant republicanism, are the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland.

Politicians elected to the Assembly at the 2003 Assembly Election were called together on 15 May 2006 under the Northern Ireland Act 2006 for the purpose of electing a First Minister of Northern Ireland and a Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland and choosing the members of an Executive (before 25 November 2006) as a preliminary step to the restoration of devolved government in Northern Ireland.

Following the election held on 7 March 2007, devolved government returned to Northern Ireland on 8 May 2007 with Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) leader Ian Paisley and Sinn Féin deputy leader Martin McGuinness taking office as First Minister and Deputy First Minister, respectively. The current First Minister is Peter Robinson, having taken over as leader of the Democratic Unionist Party.

Government and politics

Northern Ireland has devolved government within the United Kingdom. There is a Northern Ireland Executive together with the 108 member Northern Ireland Assembly to deal with devolved matters with the UK Government and UK Parliament responsible for reserved matters. Elections to the Assembly are by single transferable vote with 6 representatives elected for each of the 18 Westminster constituencies. Northern Ireland is a distinct legal jurisdiction, separate from England, Wales and Scotland. It is also an electoral region of the European Union.

Northern Ireland elects 18 Members of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons; not all take their seats, however, as the Sinn Féin MPs (currently five) refuse to take the oath to serve the Queen that is required of all MPs. The Northern Ireland Office represents the UK government in Northern Ireland on reserved matters and represents Northern Irish interests within the UK government. The Northern Ireland office is led by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, who sits in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom.

The main political divide in Northern Ireland is between Unionists or Loyalists who wish to see Northern Ireland continue as part of the United Kingdom and Nationalists or Republicans who wish to see Northern Ireland join the rest of Ireland, independent from the United Kingdom. These two opposing views are linked to deeper cultural divisions. Unionists are overwhelmingly Protestant, descendants of mainly Scottish, English, Welsh and Huguenot settlers as well as Old Gaelic Irishmen who had converted to one of the Protestant denominations. Nationalists are predominantly Catholic and descend from the population predating the settlement, with a minority from Scottish Highlanders as well as some converts from Protestantism. Discrimination against nationalists under the Stormont government (1921–1972) gave rise to the nationalist civil rights movement in the 1960s. Some Unionists argue that any discrimination was not just because of religious or political bigotry, but also the result of more complex socio-economic, socio-political and geographical factors. Whatever the cause, the existence of discrimination, and the manner in which Nationalist anger at it was handled, was a major contributing factor which led to the long-running conflict known as the Troubles. The political unrest went through its most violent phase between 1968 and 1994.

As of 2007, 36% of the population define themselves as Unionist, 24% as Nationalist and 40% define themselves as neither. According to a 2009 opinion poll, 69% express long term preference of the maintenance of Northern Ireland's membership of the United Kingdom (either directly ruled or with devolved government), while 21% express a preference for membership of a united Ireland. This discrepancy can be explained by the overwhelming preference among Protestants to remain a part of the UK (91%), while Catholic preferences are spread across a number of solutions to the constitutional question including remaining a part of the UK (47%), a united Ireland (40%), Northern Ireland becoming an independent state (5%), and those who "don't know" (5%). Official voting figures, which reflect views on the "national question" along with issues of candidate, geography, personal loyalty and historic voting patterns, show 54% of Northern Ireland voters vote for Pro-Unionist parties, 42% vote for Pro-Nationalist parties and 4% vote "other". Opinion polls consistently show that the election results are not necessarily an indication of the electorate's stance regarding the constitutional status of Northern Ireland.

Most of the population of Northern Ireland are at least nominally Christian. The ethno-political loyalties are allied, though not absolutely, to the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations and these are the labels used to categorise the opposing views. This is, however, becoming increasingly irrelevant as the Irish Question is very complicated. Many voters (regardless of religious affiliation) are attracted to Unionism's conservative policies, while other voters are instead attracted to the traditionally leftist, nationalist Sinn Féin and Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) and their respective party platforms for Democratic Socialism and Social Democracy. For the most part, Protestants feel a strong connection with Great Britain and wish for Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom. Many Catholics however, generally aspire to a United Ireland or are less certain about how to solve the constitutional question. In the 2009 survey by Northern Ireland Life and Times, 47% of Northern Irish Catholics supported Northern Ireland remaining a part of the United Kingdom, either by direct rule (8%) or devolved government (39%).

Protestants have a slight majority in Northern Ireland, according to the latest Northern Ireland Census. The make-up of the Northern Ireland Assembly reflects the appeals of the various parties within the population. Of the 108 MLAs, 55 are Unionists and 44 are Nationalists (the remaining nine are classified as "other").

Citizenship and identity

As part of the United Kingdom, people from Northern Ireland are British citizens. They are also entitled to Irish citizenship by birth which is covered in the 1998 Belfast Agreement between the British and Irish governments, which, provides that: it is the birthright of all the people of Northern Ireland to identify themselves and be accepted as Irish or British, or both, as they may so choose, and accordingly [the two governments] confirm that their right to hold both British and Irish citizenship is accepted by both Governments and would not be affected by any future change in the status of Northern Ireland.

As a result of the Agreement, the Constitution of Ireland was amended so that people born in Northern Ireland are entitled to be Irish citizens on the same basis as people from any other part of the island of Ireland.

Neither government, however, extends its citizenship to all persons born in Northern Ireland. Both governments exclude some people born in Northern Ireland (e.g. certain persons born in Northern Ireland neither of whose parents is a UK or Irish national). The Irish restriction was given effect by the Twenty-seventh amendment to the Irish Constitution in 2004.

Several studies and surveys performed between 1971 and 2006 have indicated that, in general, Protestants in Northern Ireland see themselves primarily as 'British', whereas Roman Catholics regard themselves primarily as 'Irish'.

This does not however, account for the complex identities within Northern Ireland, given that many of the population regard themselves as "Ulster" or "Northern Irish", either primarily, or as a secondary identity. A 2008 survey found that 57% of Protestants described themselves as British, while 32% identified as Northern Irish, 6% as Ulster and 4% as Irish. Compared to the same survey carried out in 1998 this shows a fall in the percentage of Protestants identifying as British and Ulster, and a rise in those identifying as Northern Irish. The 2008 survey found that 61% of Catholics described themselves as Irish, with 25% identifying as Northern Irish, 8% as British and 1% as Ulster. These figures were largely unchanged from the 1998 results.[43][44]

Demography of Northern Ireland

The population of Northern Ireland has increased annually since 1978.

Symbols used in Northern Ireland

The floral logo for the Northern Ireland assembly is based on the flax plant.

Northern Ireland comprises a patchwork of communities whose national loyalties are represented in some areas by flags flown from lamp posts. The Union Flag and the former Northern Ireland Flag are flown in some loyalist areas, and the Tricolour, adopted by republicans as the flag of Ireland in 1848, is flown in some republican areas. Even kerbstones in some areas are painted red-white-blue or green-white-orange (or gold), depending on whether local people express unionist/loyalist or nationalist/republican sympathies.

The official flag is the Union Flag. The Northern Ireland flag was previously the former Governmental Northern Ireland banner (also known as the "Ulster Banner" or "Red Hand Flag"). It was based on the arms of the former Parliament of Northern Ireland, and was used officially by the Government of Northern Ireland and its agencies between 1953 and 1972. Since 1972, it has had no official status. UK flags policy states that in Northern Ireland: The Ulster flag and the Cross of St. Patrick have no official status and, under the Flags Regulations, are not permitted to be flown from Government Buildings.

The Union Flag and the Ulster Banner are mainly used by Unionists.

The Irish Rugby Football Union and the Church of Ireland have used the Flag of St. Patrick. It was used to represent Ireland when the whole island was part of the UK and is used by some British army regiments. Foreign flags are also found, such as the Palestinian flags in some Nationalist areas and Israeli flags in some Unionist areas. This is also true during matches with Scottish teams.

The United Kingdom national anthem of "God Save the Queen" is often played at state events in Northern Ireland. At the Commonwealth Games, the Northern Ireland team uses the Ulster Banner as its flag and Londonderry Air (usually set to lyrics as Danny Boy) is used as its national anthem. The Northern Ireland football team also uses the Ulster Banner as its flag but uses "God Save The Queen" as its national anthem. Major Gaelic Athletic Association matches are opened by the Republic of Ireland national anthem, "Amhrán na bhFiann (The Soldier's Song)", which is also used by some other all-Ireland sporting organisations. Since 1995, the Ireland rugby union team has used a specially commissioned song, "Ireland's Call" as the team's anthem. The Republic of Ireland national anthem is also played at Dublin home matches as a courtesy to the host country.

Northern Irish murals have become well-known features of Northern Ireland, depicting past and present divisions, both also documenting peace and cultural diversity. Almost 2,000 murals have been documented in Northern Ireland since the 1970s (see Conflict Archive on the Internet/Murals).

Geography and climate

Northern Ireland was covered by an ice sheet for most of the last ice age and on numerous previous occasions, the legacy of which can be seen in the extensive coverage of drumlins in Counties Fermanagh, Armagh, Antrim and particularly Down. The centrepiece of Northern Ireland's geography is Lough Neagh, at 391 km2 the largest freshwater lake both on the island of Ireland and in the British Isles. A second extensive lake system is centred on Lower and Upper Lough Erne in Fermanagh. The largest island of Northern Ireland is Rathlin, off the north Antrim coast. Strangford Lough is the largest inlet in the British Isles, covering 150 km2 .

There are substantial uplands in the Sperrin Mountains (an extension of the Caledonian fold mountains) with extensive gold deposits, granite Mourne Mountains and basalt Antrim Plateau, as well as smaller ranges in South Armagh and along the Fermanagh–Tyrone border. None of the hills are especially high, with Slieve Donard in the dramatic Mournes reaching 849 metres (2,785 ft), Northern Ireland's highest point. Belfast's most prominent peak is Cavehill. The volcanic activity which created the Antrim Plateau also formed the eerily geometric pillars of the Giant's Causeway on the north Antrim coast. Also in north Antrim are the Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge, Mussenden Temple and the Glens of Antrim.

The Giant's Causeway, County Antrim

The Lower and Upper River Bann, River Foyle and River Blackwater form extensive fertile lowlands, with excellent arable land also found in North and East Down, although much of the hill country is marginal and suitable largely for animal husbandry.

The valley of the River Lagan is dominated by Belfast, whose metropolitan area includes over a third of the population of Northern Ireland, with heavy urbanisation and industrialisation along the Lagan Valley and both shores of Belfast Lough.

Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge

The whole of Northern Ireland has a temperate maritime climate, rather wetter in the west than the east, although cloud cover is persistent across the region. The weather is unpredictable at all times of the year, and although the seasons are distinct, they are considerably less pronounced than in interior Europe or the eastern seaboard of North America. Average daytime maximums in Belfast are 6.5 °C (43.7 °F) in January and 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) in July. The damp climate and extensive deforestation in the 16th and 17th centuries resulted in much of the region being covered in rich green grassland.

Highest maximum temperature: 30.8 °C (87.4 °F) at Knockarevan, near Garrison, County Fermanagh on 30 June 1976 and at Belfast on 12 July 1983.

Counties

Northern Ireland consists of six historic counties: County Antrim, County Armagh, County Down, County Fermanagh, County Londonderry, County Tyrone

These counties are no longer used for local government purposes; instead there are twenty-six districts of Northern Ireland which have different geographical extents, even in the case of those named after the counties from which they derive their name. Fermanagh District Council most closely follows the borders of the county from which it takes its name. Coleraine Borough Council, on the other hand, derives its name from the town of Coleraine in County Londonderry.

Although counties are no longer used for governmental purpose, they remain a popular means of describing where places are. They are officially used while applying for an Irish passport, which requires one to state one's county of birth. The name of county then appears in both Irish and English on the passport's information page, as opposed to the town or city of birth on the United Kingdom passport. The Gaelic Athletic Association still uses the counties as its primary means of organisation and fields representative teams of each GAA county.

The county boundaries still appear on Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland Maps and the Phillips Street Atlases, among others. With their decline in official use, there is often confusion surrounding towns and cities which lie near county boundaries, such as Belfast and Lisburn, which are split between counties Down and Antrim (the majorities of both cities, however, are in Antrim).

Cities

There are five major settlements with city status in Northern Ireland:

Armagh

Belfast

Belfast (Irish: Béal Feirste, "mouth of the sandbars") is the capital of and the largest city in Northern Ireland and the second largest city on the Island of Ireland. It is the seat of devolved government and legislative Northern Ireland Assembly. The city forms part of the largest urban area in Northern Ireland, and the main settlement in the province of Ulster. The city of Belfast has a population of 267,500 and lies at the heart of the Belfast urban area, which has a population of 483,418. The Larger Urban Zone, as defined by the European Union, has a total population 641,638. Belfast was granted city status in 1888.

Historically, Belfast has been a centre for the Irish linen industry (earning the nickname "Linenopolis"), tobacco production, rope-making and shipbuilding: the city's main shipbuilders, Harland and Wolff, which built the ill-fated RMS Titanic, propelled Belfast on to the global stage in the early 20th century as the largest and most productive shipyard in the world. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, establishing its place as a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century.

Industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast, if briefly, the largest city in Ireland at the turn of the 20th century and the city's industrial and economic success was cited by Ulster unionist opponents of Home Rule as a reason why Ireland should shun devolution and later why Ulster in particular would fight to resist it.

Belfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Roman Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'. The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to the late 1990s. Belfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides. Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles. The Provisional IRA detonated 22 bombs within the confines of Belfast city centre in 1972, on what is known as "Bloody Friday", killing nine people. Loyalist paramilitaries including the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the killings they carried out were in retaliation for the IRA campaign. Most of their victims were Roman Catholics with no links to the Provisional IRA. A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid 1970s, became known as the Shankill Butchers. In all, over 1,500 people were killed in political violence in the city from 1969 until 2001.Part of the legacy of the Troubles is that both republican and loyalist paramilitary groups in Belfast have become involved in organised crime and racketeerin

Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education and business, a legal centre, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland. The city suffered greatly during the period of disruption, conflict, and destruction called the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calm, free from the intense political violence of former years, and substantial economic and commercial growth. Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square.

Belfast is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport 15 miles (24 km) west of the city. Belfast is also a major seaport, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the famous Harland and Wolff shipyard. Belfast is a constituent city of the Dublin-Belfast corridor, which has a population of 3 million, or half the total population of the island of Ireland.

Belfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century. Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham. The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements. Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements. Including the city centre, the city can be divided into five areas with north Belfast, east Belfast, south Belfast and west Belfast. Each of these is a parliamentary constituency. Belfast remains segregated by walls, commonly known as "peace lines", erected by the British Army after August 1969, and which still divide fourteen districts in the inner city.

In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'. In June 2007, a UK£16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre. Major arterial roads (quality bus corridor) into the city include the Antrim Road, Shore Road, Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, Ormeau Road, Malone Road, Lisburn Road, Falls Road, Springfield Road, Shankill Road, and Crumlin Road.

Belfast city centre is divided by two postcodes, BT1 for the area lying north of the City Hall, and BT2 for the area to its south. The industrial estate and docklands share BT3. The rest of the Greater Belfast postcodes are set out in a clockwise system. Although BT stands for Belfast, it is used across the whole of Northern Ireland.

Since 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural quarters. The Cathedral Quarter takes its name from St Anne's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality. It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival.

Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment. The Gaeltacht Quarter is an area around the Falls Road in West Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the Irish language. The Queen's Quarter in South Belfast is named after Queen's University. The area has a large student population and hosts the annual Belfast Festival at Queen's each autumn. It is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum, which was reopened in 2009 after major redevlopment.The Golden Mile is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University. Taking in Dublin Road, Great Victoria Street, Shaftesbury Square and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city. Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip. Finally, the Titanic Quarter covers 0.75 km2 (0 sq mi) of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as Queen's Island. Named after the Titanic, which was built here in 1912, work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into "one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe". Plans also include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum.

Derry, Lisburn, Newry

Northern Ireland has a complicated and violent history. The parades of the Marching Season, the first two weeks of July, are an annual reminder of over 300 years of political and religious contention. The parades---really political marches---are done by the "Orangemen," a group of Unionist Protestants. Marching Season culminates on July 12, the day commemorating the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.

History

Between 1607 to 1688, the English displaced many Irish Catholics from their homes and gave them to Protestants. A move, known as the Ulster Plantation, took place when the North of Ireland became the stopping grounds, not only for English, but also Scottish laborers, ex-soldiers, and others that had been displaced by the English. In 1641, Irish chiefs assembled and made a feeble attempt to revolt, causing much bloodshed against the English. In 1649, under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, the English army destroyed Ireland, massacring Catholics and implementing the tenant system. In this system, the majority of Irish land was owned by English Protestant immigrants.

William of Orange

In 1688, Catholic King James II, was displaced from the British throne by William of Orange, a Protestant. King James came to Ireland to rally support and reclaim his throne. There started a civil war between Irish Jacobites, who were for King James, and Williamites, who were for William of Orange. King James made an attempt to take the town of Derry in 1689, but was met by a band of Protestants and thus began the 105-day Siege of Derry. The siege ended when William defeated King James on July 12, 1690, at the Battle of the Boyne.

The Orange Order

The Orange Order is a fraternal organization founded in 1796. The order is intended to be for the promotion of "Biblical Protestantism," but is often associated with political and religious divisiveness. The members of the Orange Order hold annual parades during what is called "Marching Season." The Twelfth, as the holiday of July 12 is called, commemorates the Battle of the Boyne, in which William of Orange defeated King James and sent him into exile.

Parades

During the Marching Season, the Orangemen parade through the streets of Northern Ireland, wearing orange jackets, orange sashes, and bowler hats. Sometimes these parades are purposely routed through predominantly Catholic communities and have been known to cause some severe civil disturbances. Since 2005, the disturbances have become minimal. The parades typically begin at one of the Orange Halls, and end at a church.

Bonfires

Typical of the Marching Season, is the sight of massive bonfires being erected throughout the cities and countryside of Northern Ireland. Some are huge piles of scrap wood and furniture, others are massive stacks of wooden crates. The most audacious are those that set Ireland's tri-color flag at the top of the bonfire. These bonfires are lit the eve of the Twelfth. Some of the bonfires can reach 40 to 50 feet high. The ones along Ormeau Road in Belfast have been known to melt the asphalt on the street.

The priest that presides over a wedding is invited to the reception.

Mead wine is served, warm, at weddings. Usually the wedding cake is a lot like Christmas fruit cake. It almost always has fruit.

If a fork falls off the table a woman is coming to visit; a knife means a man.

When you have an itchy nose you should playfully hit everyone you are with and say "itchy nose" to insure you won't get into a fight with them.

Instead of playing "Punch Buggy" Where American's say "Punch buggy [colour of the Volkswagen Beetle that they see on the road], no punch backs!" Irish people say "Yellow registration, no returns". Yellow registrations are a type of license plate on cars in the United Kingdom and every so often you see one in the Republic of Ireland that are from Northern Ireland.

When there is an electrical storm, you should cover all the mirrors in the house or turn them around.

Your 21st birthday is the most important birthday. It is when you are considered an adult and it is a tradition to be given "the key to the house". Some 21st birthday cards still have keys on them as the symbol.

Irish dancers must wear their hair in curls.

On St. Stephen's Day, the 26th of December which is known to the English as Boxing Day, Irish children dress up and go door to door singing and performing. Sometimes they are given money, cookies, cake, tea, oranges, or nothing at all.

The United Kingdom

General - comprises of England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Isle of Man and the Channel Islands

· includes 4 nationalities: English (England), Welsh (Wales), Scottish (Scotland) and Irish (Ireland)

· the largest cities are London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield, Bristol, Leeds and Edinburgh

Geography – The UK is situated off the northwest coast of Europe bordered by the Atlantic ocean and from Europe separated by the North Sea and the English Channel. The Irish Sea and the North Channel separate Great Britain from Ireland.

Size - 244,820 sq km

Climate – mild & rainy (Gulf Stream)

Population – 56 million people (dense population)

Industries – highly industrialised – iron & steel engineering, motor vehicles, aircraft, textil, plastic, cotton, wool, chemicals, electronics, shipbuilding, food products (incl. fishing)

Mineral resources – coal, natural gas (North Sea), oil

Agriculture – wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beet, milk, meat, sheep

Government system:

The United Kingdom = Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is a constitutional monarchy, the present sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II., she has no real political power.

The UK is governed by the Cabinet ( 20 leading ministers + the Prime Minister). The supreme legislative body is the Parliament, this is split into two houses - The lower house is The House of Commons – 5 years (elected). The Upper house is The House of Lords which currently has hereditiary and life peerage members, although this is under review.

There is no written constitution (common law, conventions)

There are 3 main parties – Conversative (Tories) (right wing), Labour (left wing) and the Liberal Democrats (middle of the road).

England

Capital - London

Geography – situated in Britain

Size - 132,589 sq km

Wales

Capital - Cardiff

Geography - West, mountains and moorland

Size - 21,588 sq km

Climate - rainy

Industry – tourism, mining, manufacturing

Other - The oldest son of the English Monarch is given the title “Prince of Wales”. In 1999 Wales was granted devolution, this allows them to have their own elected parliament.

Scotland

Capital - Edinburgh

Geography - North, hills, lakes (lochs – Lochness: where the mythical monster lives), mountains

Size - 80 234 sq km

Climate - cold and windy

Industry - tourism, oil, shipbuilding

Other - The Scotttish have their own traditions & way of life, they are very independent and have a special folklore and dress - kilts. In 1999 Scotland was granted devolution, this allows them to have their own elected parliament.

Northern Ireland (Ulster)

Capital - Belfast

Geography - The Irish Sea and the North Channel separate Great Britain from Ireland.

Size - 10,409 sq km

Climate - rainy

Industry - service, shipping, agriculture

Other - There are still many problems between the two main religions in Northern Ireland (Roman Catholic and Protestant)

Pocket History:

The first inhabitants; the Celts, came from North Europe before 6th century B. C.

The Roman Empire

AD 43 - The Roman invasion starts (they built towns, roads and centralised administration)

AD 450 - 550 germanic tribes invaded – Angles, Saxons, Jutes (Romans home, Celts in the mountains)

800 - 1000 - Vikings invade and raid coastal towns

1066 the Normans - William the Conqueror became King of England – hegemony of Normans

The Middle Ages

1170 - Thomas Becket murdered in Canterbury Cathedral

1172 - Henry II conquers Ireland

1215 – the Magna Carta was signed, this lay out the Supremacy of Law over the King and was the foundation of a parliamentary government

1283 - Wales conquered by Edward I

1314 - Robert Bruce defeats the English at Bannockburn

1327 - 1377 - Edward III reigned

1377 - 1399 - Richard II reigned

1399 - 1413 - Henry IV reigned

1413 - 22 - Henry V reigned

1337 – 1453 – the Hundred Years War (England vs. France)

1422 - 61 - Henry VI reigned

1461 - 83 - Edward IV reigned

1455 - 85 - War of the Roses - war between Yorks and Lancaster

1483 - 85 - Richard III reigned

1485 - 1509 - Henry VII reigned

House of Tudor

1509 - Henry Tudor (Henry VIII) established the Tudor dynasty

1534 - Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome and became the head of Church of England

1547 - Death of Henry VIII

1547 - 1553 - Edward VI reigned

1553 - 1558 - Mary Queen of Scots reigned

The Elizabethan Age

1558 - The reign of Elisabeth I began. – England became a world power

1588 - British defeated the Spanish Armada. British colonization began with Virginia colonies.

1603 - Death of Elizabeth I

House of Stuart

1603 - 1625 - James I reigned, King of England and Scotland; union of Scottish and English crowns

1616 - Death of Shakespeare (the true end of the Elizabethan age)

1625 - 1649 - Charles I reigned

1642 – 1649 – Civil War – The King, Charles I. vs. Parliament, T Oliver Cromwell (puritan republic) – Oliver Cromwell won but became unpopular.

1660 monarchy restored (Charles II.)1688 - "Glorious Revolution" brings William and Mary to the throne

1660 - 1685 - Charles II reigned

1689 - 1702 - William III reigned

1702 - 1714 - Anne reigned

The Georgians (The house of Hannover)

1714 - 1727 George I reigned

1721 - 42 - Sir Robert Walpole serves as first Prime Minister

1727 - 1760 - George II reigned

1745 - Bonnie Prince Charlie led the Jacobite Rebellion (failed)

1761 - 1820 - George III reigned

1756 - 63 - Seven years' war with France

1801 - Ireland brought into the UK by act of union; becomes United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

1805 - Lord nelson defeats the combined French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar

1815 - Wellington defeats Napoleon at Waterloo

1820 - 1830 - George IV reigned

1830 - 1847 - William IV reigned

1837 - 1901 - Queen Victoria reigned

1837 – 1901 - The Industrial Revolution – Britain dominated world industry, commerce and the military

Modern Times

1901 - 1910 - Edward VII reigned

1910 - 1936 - George V reigned

1914 - 1918 - WW I

1936 - Edward VIII Abdication

1936 - 1952 - George VI reigned

1939 - 1945 - WW II

1952 - onward - Elizabeth II reigns

Post War- Labour government – economy was nationalized, free health care and education

1979 Conservative government - privatised national industries, reduced welfare (the Thatcher years)

1996 - Labour (New Labour) comes to power under the leadership of Tony Blair..