Typological characteristics of the noun (classes, morphological categories, singularia and pluralia tantum nouns) in the contrasted languages.

The noun as a part of speech is characterized in English and Ukrainian by a common lexico-grammatical nature of substantivity or “thingness”. Typologically

isomorphic are the paradigmatic classes of nouns, which are two: 1) common

nouns, and 2) proper names. Each of the two main classes is subcategorized, in English and Ukrainian, into several minor groups which are as follows:

Table 1. COMMON NOUNS

Concrete nouns arrow, cap, carp– стріла, кашкет, дім

Abstract nouns fear, news, hatred, - страх,знання, вість

Collective nouns cattle, crew, money – худоба, сім’я, гроші

Names of materials air, flour, iron, salt - повітря, борошно, сіль

Class nouns bird, doll, desk – птах,стіл, змій

Table 2. PROPER NOUNS

Names of people(s) Ann, English, Sam,- Ганна, Данило

Family names Adams, Byron, Newton, Shakespeare - Аврамчук, Лукаш,

Geographical names Alaska, Ottawa, Leeds, the Black Sea – Аляска,

Вінниця, Чорне море

Names of companies, newspapers, journals Standard Oil, Rolls- Royce, Volks-wagen, the

Daily Telegraph – фірма“Світанок”, “Світоч”, “Всесвіт”, “Дніпро”

Isomorphism изоморфизм (сходство форм)is observed in the existence of some other grammatically relevant groups of nouns in English and Ukrainian. Among these are , first of all, life nouns (boy, girl - півень, вовк) ; inanimate nouns (atom, bell - двері, шлях); count nouns ( pen, star дерево, стіна ) , and noncount nouns ( air, honesty, slavery – повітря, чесність, рабство).

There is some difference, however, in the realization of the meaning of

number in some groups of nouns in the contracted languages. Among these are

some collective nouns which may be used in English both in singular and in plural

(when the constituent members are meant): My family is small. – My family are

easy risers. The crew has prepared the aircraft for the take off. – The crew are

young. Hence, in plural these collective nouns become nouns of multitude , as

militia, police, cattle, having always a singular meaning in Ukrainian.

The most characteristic divergent feature of English nouns as compared with

the Ukrainian ones is their usually indistinct lexico-grammatical nature at language

level. As a result, determiners (usually the definite or the indefinite articles) are

used to identify nouns: the bear, the round of talks, to round smth. Hence, English

nouns are often determined by the –‘s/-s’ element (cf. today’s weather, London’s

population, etc.).

Morphological Categories of the Noun

The only morphological category of the noun which is almost always

marked in present-day English is that of number. It is realized, like in Ukrainian,

through zero and marked inflexions, respectively; child – children, ox – oxen,

baths, cargoes, heroes, An irregularity can be observed in the position of the

English inflexion –s in various compounds, eg: take-off = take-offs, forget-me-not

= forget-me-nots, commander- in-chief = commanders-in-chief; passer-by =

passers-by.

Completely allomorphic is also the formation of plural number by way of

mutation in the following seven English nouns: foot – feet, tooth – teeth, goose –

geese; man – men, woman – women, louse – lice, mouse – mice.

A few simple life nouns in English have one and the same form (cf. grouse,

sheep, swine, plaice). Usually, these nouns also have zero plural: carp, pike, trout,

deer, salmon. Apart from the genuinely English there are some borrowed noun

inflexions. These are Latin: -a – ae: alga – algae, larva – larvae; -us – i: stimulus

– stimuli, terminus – termini; -um – a: curriculum – curricula, erratum – errata,

etc. Several Greek borrowings preserve their singular and plural inflexion: -is – es:

analysis – analyses, basis – bases, ellipsis – ellipses and -on – a: criterion –

criteria, phenomenon – phenomena, though some nouns often take regular

English plural forms: memorandums, ganglions, solos, tempos, metropolises, etc.

Unlike English, Ukrainian number inflexions are partly predetermined by the

declension groups to which the nouns are allotted, and partly by the gender of

nouns and final consonant or vowel, which can respectively be hard, soft or mixed

(sibilant).

The major allomorphic feature in the system of noun categories is the

existence ( in Ukrainian as in Russian and Byelarussian) of dual number (двоїна)

which is often mixed up with the plural or replaced by it. The nouns express dual

number in connection with the numeral adjuncts, two, three and four. The number

is mostly indicated by stress which differs, as a rule, from that of the plural form,

eg:

Singular – Plural – Dual Singular – Plural – Dual

Берег – бере´ги – два ´береги верба – ´верби – три вер´би

слово – сло´ва – чотири ´слова квітка - квіт´ки – дві ´квітки

Typologically isomorphic, on the other hand, are classes of singularia and

pluralia tantum nouns expressing quantity. The former include four semantic

groups of mainly common nouns which denote 1) parts of the world: the

North/South, the East/West, the North-West/East; північ, південь, захід, схід,

північний захід, etc; 2) names of materials: copper, milk, bread; золото, хліб,

сіль, etc; 3) collective nouns: foliage, shrubbery, rubbish; білизна, сміття,

збрід, etc; 4) abstract nouns: joy, love, news, advice; патріотизм,, прогрес, гнів,

сором, etc.

Fewer semantic groups among the pluralia tantum nouns coincide in English

and Ukrainian. Common are: 1) summation plurals (scissors, tongs, skates, shorts,

trousers; ножиці, обценьки, терези, шорти, штани, etc; 2) some geographic

names: Athens, the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Andes; Афіни, Нідерланди,

Карпати Анди, Суми , etc, 3) nouns of remnants: scraps, leavings, remains,

sweepings, недопитки, перебірки, висівки, помиї , etc.

Many nouns may have plural meaning in English and singular meaning in

Ukrainian or vice versa, eg: barracks, goods, customs, works, police, arms,

gymnastics, etc.; казарма____________, товар, майно, мито, поліція, зброя, фізкультура.

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Ukrainian plurals: вершки, дріжджі, дрова, гроші, on the other hand, have

singularia tantum equivalents in English: cream, yeast, firewood, money, etc.

The category of case and the expression of case relations in English remains

a controversial problem. R.Quirk, S.Greenbaum and co-authors speak of common

and genitive cases (-‘s genitive and of-genitive). Ukrainian nouns may have 7

marked singular and plural oppositions in nominative (називний), genitive (родовий), dative (давальний), accusative (знахідний), instrumental (орудний), locative (місцевий) and vocative (кличний) cases, eg: хмара, хмари, хмарі, хмару, хмарою, (на) хмарі, хмаро. Or in plural: степи, степів, степами, степи,степам, (у) степах, степи.

No identity exists in the expression of the category of gender either. In

Ukrainian, Russian, German and other languages there are three grammatical

genders – masculine, feminine, neuter. In Italian, Spanish, French, Danish – two

genders (masculine and feminine) , in Estonian, Finnish, Japanese and Turkic

languages no gender distinctions are made but in Bantu language there are about

42 genders realized through different inflexions.

The morphological category of gender is identified through the inflexions of

the adjunct/attribute or through the inflexion of the finite form of the verb in

Ukrainian: Masculine gender Feminine gender Neuter gender

каштан цвів/ріс яблуня цвіла/росла жито цвіло/росло

In present-day English no distinctions of the kind are possible, eg.:

the actor plays the actress plays the child plays

the actor played the actress played the child played

Absence of the morphological category of gender in English can be proved

by the unchanged attributive adjuncts to nouns considered to have this category,

eg:

the great emperor lived… - великий імператор жив

the great heroine lived… - велика героїня жила

the great desire was… - велике бажання було

The noun in English and Ukraine, as in other languages (Romanic,

Germanic, etc.) can be made definite/indefinite semantically by some

morphological or syntactic means. The main morphological means are the articles

(in English) and demonstrative and possessive pronouns (in both the languages),

eg: I know the student; я знаю цього/того студента. I read the/ this, that/ novel;

я читав цей/той роман.

The definite article may point to the noun being generic or unique, eg: The

lion is a wild animal. The sun is a celestial body. The Bible is a holy book.

The category of definiteness may be indicated in English by the affixal

morpheme (cf. colours/flag, lines/verses) or by syntactic means ( in both

languages), for example, by adjuncts: the Tory government, King CharlesY; урядторі, готель “Україна”.

The category of indefiniteness is mainly identified by the indefinite article

(in English) or by indefinite pronouns, by numeral “one”, or by adjectives + the

negative particle not. Eg: A student is waiting for you; якийсь студент (незнайомий студент), один якийсь студент чекає вас.

Indefiniteness may be expressed in Ukrainian by the inverted word order:

The door open and the teacher entered… Двері відчинилися, і викладач увійшов

(у клас). The door opened and a teacher entered… Двері відчинилися, і в клас

увійшов викладач.

Morphological, functional and other isomorphic and allomorphic features of different classes of adjective in the contrasted languages. Gradibility of qualitative adjectives

The adjective as a part of speech is characterized in English and in Ukrainian by a common lexico-grammatical nature and common functions. It expresses the attributes of substances ( a nice flower, urgent measures) and can serve as a predicative complement after the copula-verb ( the child was small, he grew old; дитя було маленьке, вона стала нервовою).

Adjectives in the contrasted languages may be qualitative, directly denoting

qualities of a substance as a size, shape, colour, physical and mental qualities

(little, hard, white; великий, чорний) and relative which characterize objects or phenomena through their relation to other objects and phenomena: to materials (silken, wooden; шовковий, дерев’яний), to place (Italian, Asian; італійський,

азіатський), to some action (preparatory, rotatory; підготовчий, обертальний).

Grading of Qualitative Adjectives

Most qualitative adjectives in English and Ukrainian are gradable.

Gradibility in both languages is achieved by means of the positive, the comparative

and the superlative degrees. The way of grading may be synthetic or analytical.

The synthetic way of grading is restricted to base (one syllable) adjectives (big,

bigger, biggest); two-syllable adjectives in -y, -er, -ow, -le (happy, clever, narrow,

simple); two syllable adjectives with the concluding stressed syllable (concise,

complete, etc). In colloquial emphatic speech they may be graded in the analytical

way, too: It appeared to me that he was more clever and cold than they

were…(Ibid)

The analytical forms of grading are more often employed in English than in

Ukrainian, eg.: important, more/less important, most/least important).

In Ukrainian the synthetic way of grading is more often used. It is formed by

means of the suffixes -іш/-ш and the prefixes най-, щонай-, якнай-, eg: добрий, добріший, найдобріший/якнайдобріший; сміливий, сміливіший, найсміливіший, etc.

The comparative and the superlative (or both) degrees of some Ukrainian

adjectives may be formed by analytical means, most of which are intensifying

adverbs більш/менш важливий, багато/набагато важливіший, значно

сильніший.

Of isomorphic nature in the contrasted languages is the existence of

suppletivity (in actually the same adjectives) , eg: good, better, best; bad, worse,

worst; little, less, least; добрий, кращий, найкращий.

Ukrainian adjectives may be formed by diminutive and augmentative

suffixes, such as –еньк-, -есеньк-, -ісіньк-, -юсіньк-, (гарненький, тонюсінький), and –езн-, -енн-, -ач-/-яч-, -ущ-/-ющ- (величезний, добрячий,

багатющий).

Isomorphic is the process of adjectivation of some parts of speech: beaten

track – битий шлях, biting frost – пекучий мороз, the well-to-do people –

заможні люди, the then-trainer – тодішній тренер.

Common is also the process of substantivization of adjectives in English and

Ukrainian: a relative, a black/white, a monthly/weekly, Brown/the Browns;

прийомна, слідчий, черговий, Береговий – wholly substantivized; the poor, the

rich, the young; головне, важливе, основне, (ходити в) теплому, шовковому,

бути в літньому – partially substantivized, having no number, gender, case

distinctions in English, and being of neuter gender in Ukrainian.

The numeral. Classes of numerals and their isomorphic/allomorphic features in the contrasted languages.

The numeral in the contrasted languages has a common implicit lexicogrammatical

meaning expressing quantity (two, ten, twenty-one), part of an object

(one-third, two-fifths) or order of some objects ( the first, the tenth).

The numerals in the contrasted languages fall into some common and

divergent subclasses. Common are 1) cardinal; 2) ordinal and 3) fractional

(common and decimal fractions). In Ukrainian all numerals are declinable, having

number, case and gender distinctions: десять, десяти, десятьом ; другий,

другого, другому; дві цілих і три десятих, двом цілим і трьом десятим).

Apart from the above-given Ukrainian has two more subclasses of numerals.

They are: 1) the indefinite cardinal numerals (кілька/декілька,

кількадесят/кількасот, багато/небагато); 2) collective numerals which

denote totality or indivisible unity (двоє, троє, тринадцятеро).

The numerals in English and Ukrainian may have the following structure: 1)

simple (one, two; один, десятеро, двійко, чимало). 2) derivative numerals,

pertaining to English only (cf. thirteen … nineteen, twenty…ninety). 3)

Compound numerals in English are all from twenty-one to ninety-nine. In

Ukrainian, compound are numerals in –надцять (from одинадцять toдев’ятнадцять), all tens (from двадцять to дев’яносто) except сто; the fractionals півтора, півтораста; the indefinite cardinals кількадесят,

кількасот, and all ordinals derivated from compound cardinals (одинадцятий, двохсотий). 4) composite in the contrasted languages are numerals consisting of compound + simple numerals or vice versa, eg: twenty two hundred and thirtyone;дві тисячі триста сорок один). Composite are also fractional numerals, such as one fifth, three ninths, one and two fourths; одна третя, три цілих і одна четверта.

Isomorphism and allomorphism in the classes of verbs in the contrasted languages. Ways of expressing morphological categories.

The main classes of verbs as to their functional significance are common in

the contrasted languages. These are a) notional verbs (go, ask; іти,

запитувати); b) auxiliary verbs. The latter split into primary (be, do, have; бути,мати), modal (can, may, must, could, should, need; могти, мусити, сміти,мати, etc.) and linking verbs (appear, look, become; ставати, виявлятися,здаватися).

English lexical/nominal verbs split into two subclasses which are not

available in Ukrainian. These are: 1) regular verbs forming their past stem and the

past participle with the help of the ending –ed: dressed , worked; 2) irregular

verbs having their past stems and the past participle formed by the way of

alteration of their base vowel: bind – bound – bound, take – took – taken.

Suppletive verbs are common in English and Ukrainian: cf. be – was – were, go –

went; бути – є, іти – пішов, пішла.

Ukrainian nominal verbs may belong either to the first declension group or

to the second declension group. Verbs of the first declension group have the ending

–уть, -ють in the third person plural (ведуть, дають). Verbs of the second declension group have the ending –ать, -ять in the third person plural (кричать,горять).

As regarded their role in expressing predicativity, verbs in the contrasted

languages may be a) of complete predication or b) of incomplete predication.

Verbs of complete predication split into some common groups singled out on the

basis of their implicit dependent grammatical meanings. These groups are:

1. Subjective verbs (always intransitive), like to act, to go, to sleep, to

glisten; діяти, йти, спати, блищати, тощо). 2. Objective verbs (transitive

only): to give, to take, to envy; брати, давати, заздрити і т.д.). 3. Terminative

verbs, expressing action having final aims: to close, to open, to come, to find;

зачиняти, приходити, заходити). 4. Durative verbs, expressing action with no

final aim: to like, to love, to hate, to hope; подобатись, любити, ненавидіти. 5).

Mixed-type verbs, which can have both terminative and durative meaning: to sit, to

stand, to know, to remember; сидіти, стояти, знати. 6. Reflexive verbs, which

are formed in English with the help of reflexive pronouns oneself, myself,

ourselves: to wash oneself, to shave oneself, to see herself in the mirror, etc.

Note. Closely connected with impersonal and reflexive verbs in Ukrainian

are a number of impersonal verbs used to form impersonal sentences. The verbs

constitute semantically different groups, like вечоріє, дніє, розвидняється,

примерзає, нудить, хочеться, віриться; не було, не стало, таланить; бракує,

вистачає тощо.

Verbs of incomplete predication are presented in English and Ukrainian in

three common groups which are as follows:

1. Auxiliary verbs (to be, to do, to have, shall/will), which are used in the

corresponding person and tense form to express in English the following categorial

meanings of the verbs: a) the continuos aspect (he is/was reading a book); b)

some forms of the subjunctive mood (He ordered we should go);

c) the passive voice ( The passage is/was translated). Auxiliary verbs in Ukrainian

are restricted to one бути which is polyfunctional and is used to form: a) the

passive voice (текст був перекладений); b) the analytical future tense (текст

буде перекладений); c) some subjunctive mood forms (якби я був знав, я був

би прийшов); d) the pluperfect tense form, which fully corresponds to the English

past perfect. (Cf. Ніби й задрімав був зразу, але щось приверзлось, то й

проснувся. (Головко).

2. Close to the auxiliary by their function (and often by their lexical

meaning, too) are English and Ukrainian modal verbs. Their number and

nomenclature is larger in English than in Ukrainian. Cf.:

English: can, may, must should, would, ought, have/be, shall, will, dare, need.

Ukrainian: вміти, могти, мусити, слід, треба, мати, сміти, потребувати.

3. Linking verbs in both languages form a verbal or mixed-type compound

predicate. They fall into three groups:

a) Linking verbs of being: to be, to feel, to look, to seem, to taste, to smell

– бути, виявлятися, зватися, вважатися, доводитися (He looks young/tired).

b) Linking verbs of becoming: to become, to get, to grow, to turn –

ставати, робитися (They grew stronger / Вони стали сильнішими)

с) Linking verbs of remaining: He remained silent / Він зостався

задоволений.

English auxiliary verbs are used to form the present, past and future

continuous tenses (I am/was, shall be reading); the interrogative, negative and

future forms of the Indefinite group of tenses (Does he speak English? He did not

know me. Will he come soon?); the imperative mood/imperative and incentive

meaning (Do it now!) and the perfect forms of the verb (I have done it. )

Ways of Expressing Morphological Categories

The finite verb in the contrasted languages has six common morphological

categories which are realized partly with the help of synthetic means (inflexions)

and partly through different analytical means. An illustrative presentation of the

ways of realization of each morphological category is given in the table 6.

Table 6. REALIZATION OF MORPHOLOGICAL CATEGORIES

Morphological Means of realization

category

In English in Ukrainian

Person I know: He knows Я знаю: Він знає

Number He reads: They read Він читає: Вона читає

Tenses

1. Absolute

use

2. Relative use

I work: I worked

He works: He will work

He said he had been seen

when he comes

she will ask – when he came

when he will come

Я працюю. Я працював

Він знає: Він знатиме

Він буде знати

Він прокинувся був, а потім

знов заснув

де він живе

я запитаю – де він жив

де він житиме

Aspect He works: He is working

(common/continuous)

Він читав: Він прочитав це

Вона зараз тренується

(доконаний/недоконаний)

Voice The house is/was built

The house is being built

It will be/have been built

Хата збудована/була, буде

збудована. Хата ставиться.

Хід зроблено.

Mood

Indicative: We love our parents.

Imperative: Don’t speak so loud!

Subjunctive: Come what may!

Ми любимо своїх батьків.

Не розмовляйте так голосно!

Хай буде, що буде!

The tabulated examples above testify to the existence of both isomorphic and allomorphic features in the nomenclature and means of expressing some morphological categories of the verb in the contrasted languages.

Absolute isomorphism is observed in the means of realization of the following morphological categories in the contrasted languages.

1. Person and number (with the help of synthetic means, i.e., inflexions only). Cf. He is - they are; I was – they were. Я пишу – ви пишете. Я писав – ви писали.

2. The imperative mood form with no reference to a definite person, as in the following sentences: Stop talking! Sit still! Не розмовляти! Сидіти тихо!

3. The affirmative and some interrogative forms of the indefinite group of tenses and of the pluperfect (давноминулий) tense: I work. I worked. I shall work. He had left before I arrived. Я працюю. Я працював. Я буду працювати. Він приходив був, але мене не застав.

4. Isomorphism also exists a) In the correlation with the time of actions expressed: He says she lives in Kyiv. He said she lived in Kyiv. He will say they will live in Kyiv. I thought that she came/would come, had come. Similarly in Ukrainian: Він каже, що вона прийшла; він скаже, що вона прийде; він

казав, що вона приходила/приходила була ; b) In the existence of tenses not correlating with the time of actions expressed in the main clause, eg: He will say that he knows/knew, had known it. Він скаже, що вона прийшла/приходила,

приходила була; c) In the existence of some identical forms expressing those same subjunctive mood meanings in English and Ukrainian. Cf. If I knew that before… Якби я знав це раніше… If I had known that before… Якби я був знав це раніше… Had I known that before… Знав би я був це раніше… Were she here then… Була б вона в той час тут…

d) In the existence of identical passive voice forms in the past and future Indefinite tense: He was invited. She will/will not be invited. Він був запрошений. Вона буде/не буде запрошена.

Allomorphic features find their expression in the ways of realization of some morphological categories in English and Ukrainian. These ways are as follows:

1. The use of analytical paradigms in English to express tense, aspect and

voice forms, and negative/interrogative forms, like He is reading now. Is he

reading now? Does/did he speak English? The passage is being translated. 2. The

absence in Ukrainian of the continuous aspect, whose durative meaning can be

expressed by the transitive verb stems with the suffixes –cь, -ся and a

corresponding adverb/adverbial phrase identifying the moment/period of the

action. Cf. Петренко зараз/ще, вже, давно будується.

3. The expression of the category of person in Ukrainian imperative mood

forms: Пиши! Ти пиши! Пишіть! Ви пишіть! Іди! Будьмо/будьте здорові!

Встань! Встань! Не вір!

Similarly, analytical imperative mood forms have corresponding personal

pronouns in English (Let me say. Let him/us say ) and in Ukrainian – the particle нум or нумо (for singular or plural forms respectively) and person and number inflexions of the notional verb. Cf. Нум я запитаю. Нумо заспівайте!

4. The expression of the passive voice in Ukrainian, not only with the help of analytical forms (лист був/буде відісланий), but also with help of some

synthetic means: a) inflexions of the past participle; b) suffixes –сь, -ся of the

notional verb and c) with the help of the verbal forms in -но, -то: Стаття

написана.. Жито скошене. Фрески відновлені. Хата будується/будувалась. Музей зачинено.

A peculiar feature of passive constructions in English is their much more frequent use than in Ukrainian.

Isomorphism and allomorphism in the system of verbals of the contrasted languages.

The nomenclature of verbals in the contrasted languages includes some

common and some divergent forms. Common are the infinitive and the two

participles; divergent are the gerund in English and the diyepryslivnyk in

Ukrainian. Verbals from transitive verbs have the following categorical

distinctions in these two languages.

Table 7. CATEGORIAL DISTINCTIONS OF VERBALS

Infinitive active: to ask passive: to be askedактивний: запитувати.пасивний: бути запитаним

Non-progressive active perfect: to have asked passive perfect: to have been asked

недоконаного виду: лить, цвісти, їсти

доконаного виду:

змити, зацвісти, поспати

Progressive infinitive active: to be asking perfect: to have been asking

Gerund active: asking passive: being asked active perfect: having asked passive perfect: having been asked

Дієприслівник

Активний теперішнього часу: йдучи, маючи, знаючиактивний минулого часу:

йшовши, мавши, знавши

Participle I present active: asking present passive : being asked

perfect active: having asked perfect passive:having been asked

Дієприкметник активний теперішнього часу:читаючий, -а, -е, мигаю-чий, -а, -е

активний минулого часу:перемігший, здолавший

Participle II passive past: asked, made пасивний минулого часу: запрошений, пройдений

The tabulated forms of verbals testify to the existence of allomorphisms in

their structural forms and in their categorical meanings. Thus, the English infinitive

is always distinguished by its determiner “to” (to come, to be asked, to be doing),

whereas the Ukrainian infinitive is characterized by the suffixes –ти, -ть, -тись, -

тися. Allomorphism is observed in the categorical meanings of the infinitive and

the participle. The infinitive in Ukrainian has no perfect passive form, no

continuous aspect form, no perfect active and perfect passive of Participle I

pertaining to English.

The gerund and the diyepryslivnyk present allomorphic verbals and they

can not be contrasted in any way. The gerund has both verbals and noun

characteristics, the former being of those of tense and voice (asking – being asked,

having asked – having been asked). The noun characteristics of the gerund find

their expression in the functions in the sentence as subject, object, predicative, and

as an adverbial modifier of manner, eg: The rain poured down without ceasing

(Mugham).

Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk as an indeclinable verbal may be a) nonperfective

or present (несучи, працюючи) and b) perfective or past (донісши,привізши, здолавши, побачивши).

Characteristics of English vs. Ukrainian statives, ways of their formation and combinability

Statives in English and Ukrainian are invariable notional words whose

logico-grammatical function is to denote the physical state of persons, things or

phenomena, the psychological state of persons, state in motion, etc. English statives have a characteristic prefix a- : afire, aflame, alike, afloat, atremble, ashudder, etc. “The lamps were still alight…”. (Galsworthy) “I woke at six the next morning and found George awake”. (J. K. Jerome ) “He had been ashamed and afraid “. (Abrahams )

Ukrainian statives, on the other hand, are formed with the help of the

following suffixes: -о: Романові стало і прикро і якось соромно (Минко); -а: Треба хазяїну на хутір… Шкода журитись, молодичко! ( М. Вовчок ); -е: Добре Чіпці у діда підпасичем. (Мирний )

The category of state may be expressed by means of nouns (in English by

prepositional nouns only ). Cf. “She seemed on fire”. (Glasworthy) “You keep

me in the know”. (Ibid.) Сором слів, що ллються від безсилля. (Л. Українка)

Не раз він був у відчаї. ( Стельмах )

Statives in the contrasted languages rarely correlate lexically. Thus, English

statives have mostly predicative verbs, adverbs or adjectives for their equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf. “ I lay awake a long time “. Ядовго не міг заснути. ( Galsworthy ). “ Ruth was aghast “. ( London ) Рут була приголомшена.

Among other isomorphic features one more should be pointed out: some

statives may have grading. Cf. He is more dead than alive. She was more

ashamed than anybody else. Йому стало краще. Нам тут гірше. Їй там було найкраще.

The combinability of English and Ukrainian statives is characterized

by both isomorphism and allomorphism. Isomorphic are the following

patterns of statival word-groups in English and Ukrainian:

Stative + Vinf.: afraid to answer; треба працювати.

St. + prep. + N: ashamed of the deed / step; соромно за хлопця.

St. + prep. + I: afraid of this / of everything; соромно за неї / за всіх. St. + prep. + Q: afraid of the two / three; треба для / на двох. Pertaining to English only is the combinability of statives with the gerund (cf. afraid of answering, ashamed of having said that ).

Far from common are the functions of statives in the sentence where they can

be, in both English and Ukrainian: a) as predicative : “Ruth was aghast “.

(London ) І все-таки було тоскно … на серці. ( Гончар ); b) as simple

nominal predicate: He, afraid ? Мені їх не шкода, мені їх не жаль. (Шевченко)

Divergent is the function of the attribute, typical of English only ( the child

asleep, the house ablaze).

Semantic groups of modal words/phrases in English and Ukrainian, and their origin

The lexical units belonging to this part of speech are characterized in both

languages by their meaning of “modality “. They are used to express the speaker’s

judgement concerning the action in the sentence. These words / phrases in English

and Ukrainian are as follows: certainly, indeed, maybe, perhaps, possibly,

probably, of course, no doubt - певне, непевне, звичайно, може, можливо,

безумовно, безсум-нівно та ін.

Modals are traditionally classified as follows:

1. Modal words / phrases expressing various shades of certainty: certainly, of

course, surely, no doubt, assuredly, indeed, undoubtedly, really - певне, напевне,звичайно, безсумнівно, безперечно, безумовно, зрозуміло, правда:

“ Yes, certainly they ( pigeons ) will Так, звичайно, вони ( голуби )

fly “. ( Hemingway ) повилітають.

2. Modal words expressing various degrees of probability: maybe, perhaps,

possibly, probably - може, можливо, мабуть, ймовірно, видно, здається.

“Maybe it was all a lie…”. (Steinbeck) Може, все це була неправда.

3. Modal words expressing various shades of desirability: happily, fortunately,

unfortunately, which have a restricted number of direct semantic equivalents in

Ukrainian (на щастя, на жаль).“Fortunately, it didn’t come true “. На щастя, це не здійснилося. (Jacobs)

4. Modal words expressing doubt, uncertainty and coinciding in form with the

modal words denoting probability : maybe, perhaps, probably - може, можливо,мабуть.

“Maybe it’s not yet time…? (Cald- Може, ще не настав час? well)

The subjective and objective attitude of the speaker towards the action may

often be expressed by several other parenthetic words and phrases which may

point:

a) to the authorship of the idea / assertion expressed in the sentence, eg.: they say,

as reported, in my view, to my mind, I think - кажуть, як повідомляють, на мою

думку, як говориться тощо; b) words and phrases expressing an estimation of the idea expressed in the sentence, eg: shortly speaking, generally speaking, in a word, - коротко кажучи, відверто кажучи, одне слово, etc. ; c) words pointing to the order or succession of ideas expressed in the sentence, eg: firstly, secondly, on the contrary - по-перше, по-друге, навпаки, etc.

One more common feature of modals in the contrasted languages is their

positi-on in the sentence. Most of them may occupy any position according to the

emphasis they are given by the author / speaker. Cf. Perhaps he will come. He will

perhaps come. He will come perhaps. (Можливо, він прийде; він, можливо,прийде; він прийде, можливо ).

Modals may also be used in both contrasted languages as elliptical answer

sentences, eg:“ Maybe it was all a lie… “ “Мабуть, усе то була брехня…” “ Maybe”. (Steinbeck ) “Можливо”.

Isomorphism and allomorphism in the structural forms and types of word-groups of the contrasted languages

The word-group in both contrasted languages consists of two or more

grammatically connected notional parts of speech expressing some content. Wordgroups

in English and Ukrainian may be free or idiomatically bound (constant), eg;

1) to learn much, to learn hard, to learn quickly, etc; 2) to have dinner/supper, to

have a lesson, etc.

Common features are observed in the structural forms of word-groups. They

are:

1. Simple or elemental word-groups which consist of two components

connected synthetically or analytically: this book - these books; to read well;

people of rank; ця книжка - ці книжки, читати добре, вийти з метро.

2. Equally common are word-groups of complicated structure and

grammatical form, eg: writing and reading letters (co-ordinate and analytical), to

see Mike driving a car (analytical and predicative) - ці книжки та журнали, бачити когось у метро.

There are also structurally more complicated word-groups in both languages,

eg: those long sentences for you to analyze and translate - ті довгі речення длятебе для аналізу й перекладу.

However, there exist no quantitative correlation in the means of

grammatically connection of constituents in English and in Ukrainian wordgroups.

Since present-day English is mainly analytical in structure, the principal

means of its grammatical connection are naturally analytical. They are syndetic

(prepositional) and asyndetic. These two forms of analytical connection are very

often of equal relevance, eg:

Syndetic connection Asyndetic connection

books for home reading home-reading books

production of suger cane suger cane production

books at the institute library the institute library books

In Ukrainian, with its mostly declinable nominal parts of speech, nouns,

adjectives, numerals, pronouns and particles, which when used as adjuncts, mostly

agree with the head word in number, case and gender, eg: рання весна – ранньої

весни – ранній весні – ранньою весною.

Type of syntactic connection in English in Ukrainian

1. Synthetic connection

(agreement and government) less common dominant

2. Analytical connection (syndetic and asyndetic) dominant less common

Pertaining to English only are substantival word-groups of the NN, NNN,

etc. Patterns like cotton yarn, cotton yarn production, cotton yarn production

figures; Kyiv street traffic, Kyiv street traffic violations, etc.

Types of Word-Groups. Co-Ordinate Word- Groups

According to the existing interrelations between their immediate

components all word-groups in the contrasted languages split into 1) co-ordinate,

2) subordinate, and 3) predicative.

Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from

components equal in rank connected syndetically or asyndetically: books and

magazines; to read, translate and retell; книжки й журнали; читати, перекладати й переказувати.

According to the structure of the components and their number, co-ordinate

word-groups may be elemental and enlarged. Elemental word-groups consist of

two components only, eg: he and she, all but me; він і вона, всі крім мене.

Enlarged co-ordinate word-groups consist of structurally more complicated

components: to read the text , to analyze stylistically and translate it – читати текст, аналізувати його стилістично й перекладати його.

SubordinateWord-Groups

Subordinate word-groups in all languages consist of a head component, and

one or more adjuncts/complements. They may be either a single notional word or a

group of words, eg: my pen, her father and mother, take part in the conference,

bad for you.

According to the morphological classification, the following seven

common paradigmatic classes of word-groups are singled out in English and in

Ukrainian:

1. Substantival Word-Groups, in which the mainly attributive adjuncts may

be in pre-position or in post-position to the noun head. Their way if connection is

mainly analytical in English and synthetic in Ukrainian, eg.: street traffic rules –

гра оркестру телестудії; last spring football matches – період розпаду ядер

урану; rays of hope – вісті з полів.

2. Verbal word-Groups are: 1) with simple objective or adverbial

complements; 2) with extended or expanded complements; 3) with simple or

extended/expanded objective and adverbial complements.

Simple unextended word-groups with the transitive verbal head take

nominal and adverbial complements/adjuncts. Their patterns are common in

English and Ukrainian. Cf., to receive five, to love him, to love truly; отримати

п’ятірку, кохати його, щиро любити. Common are also prepositional

complements in verbal word-groups: to speak of somebody, to divide by two;

говорити про когось, ділити на два.

Extended and expanded complements have mainly common structural

patterns in the contrasted languages, eg: to like to play the piano – любити

пограти на піаніно; to like to read and to translate the English texts – любити

читати і перекладати англійські тексти.

3. Adjectival Word-Groups have a much smaller number (and varieties) of

structural models, eg: simply beautiful, glad to hear, best of all, good for you, so

very unusual, very nice for boys; просто гарний, радий чути, кращий за всіх,

зручний для нас, аж надто важкий, аж надто гарний для хлопців.

Pertaining to English only are adjectival word-groups with gerundial

complements, eg: worth reading (the book), proud of his having being invited, etc.

Ukrainian adjectival word-groups have free location of most of adjuncts

which is absolutely impossible in English. Cf. дуже добра - добра дуже, значно

молодший за мене - за мене молодший. Ukrainian head adjectives express the morphological categories of number, case and gender which is impossible in English. Cf. гарний зовні, гарна зовні, гарні; гарної зовні, гарною зовні.

4. In Pronominal Word-Groups most often the heads are indefinite, negative

and demonstrative pronouns. The most common adjuncts are pronoun,

prepositional nouns, adjectives, infinitives, verbal word-groups and subordinate

clauses, eg: he himself, something new, much to do, poor me, many of the workers,

some of them, nothing for him to say; він сам, щось нове, щось робити, бідний я, дехто з учнів, нічого для неї передавати.

The usual place of these adjuncts is post-position, though in Ukrainian they

may be used in pre-position as well. Also Ukrainian pronouns are all declinable,

eg: ми всі, нас усіх, нам усім, нами всім, etc. Ukrainian pronominal word-groups

have free word order which is never possible in English. Cf. щось нове – нове щось, нічого казати – казати нічого, etc.

5. Though some grammarians avoid even mentioning the Numerical Word-

Groups, their existence in English and Ukrainian can not be denied. The most

common adjuncts are prepositional nouns, pronouns, adjectives, infinitives,

subordinate clauses, eg: two of the pupils, the firs to come, two of the workers who

were absent; двоє з групи, перший співати; двоє з робітників, що не були

присутні.

6. Adverbial Word-Groups in the contrasted languages can be headed by

adverbs or by adverbial phrases. The adjuncts may be expressed by adverbs or by

adverbial phrases, eg: terribly well, late that evening, earlier than he could think

of; страшно добре, пізніше того вечора, раніше, ніж він міг подумати.

7. Statival Word-Groups rarely correlate in the contrasted languages

semantically and even structurally. This is because English statives have few direct

lexical equivalents in Ukrainian and vice versa. The structural patterns of statival

word-groups in English and Ukrainian are mostly common, though their

components almost never lexically coincide. Cf. afraid to answer, ashamed of the

deed, soon asleep, never afraid of the rain; страшно заснути, важко на душі, значно тепліше, завжди прикро за примхи.

Gerundial complements, naturally, pertain to English statival word-groups

(cf. afraid of being sent away). Also, English statives have a fixed position for a

certain morphological class of word-groups, eg: ashamed/afraid of something, but:

soon asleep. The position of Ukrainian statives in the word-group is free, eg: йому добре тут – тут йому добре – добре йому тут.