Intonation

Intonation is a complex unity of variations in pitch, stress, tempo and timbre. The pitch component of intonation, or melody, is the changes in the pitch of the voice in connected speech. Sentence stress, or accent, is the greater prominence of one or more words among other words in the same sentence. Tempo is the relative speed with which sentences and intonation­ groups are pronounced in connected speech. Speech timbre is a special colouring of voice, which shows the speaker's emotions, i.e. pleasure, displeasure, sorrow, etc. Intonation serves to form sentences and intonation-groups, to define their communicative type, to express the speaker's thoughts, to convey the attitudinal meaning. One and the same grammatical structure and lexical composition of the sentence may express different meaning when pronounced with different intonation.

e.g. "'Isn't it ridiculous? (general question) "'Isn't it ridiculous! (exclamation)

Long sentences, simple extended, compound and complex, are sub­divided into intonation - groups. Intonation-group division depends on the meaning of the sentence, the grammatical structure of the utterance and the style of speech. Each intonation-group is character­ized by a definite intonation pattern. The number of intonation-groups in the same sentence may be different. e.g. In June, July and August our children 'don't 'go to school. In June, July, and August our children 'don't 'go to school.

The end of each sentence is characterized by a relatively long pause. The pauses between intonation-groups are shorter, they vary in length. There may be no pauses between intonation-groups at all.

Each intonation-group is characterized by a certain intonation pat­tern, i.e. each syllable of an intonation-group has a certain pitch and bears a larger or smaller degree of prominence. There are three pitch levels: high, medium and low. Consequently, pitch levels are inseparably connected with stress. Intonation patterns consist of one or more syllables. Intonation patterns containing a number of syl­lables consist of the following parts: the pre-head, the head, the nucleus and the tail.

The pre-head includes unstressed and half-stressed syllables preceding the first stressed syllable. The pre-heads may be low and high. E.g. I don't want to go to the cinema. I don't want to go to the cinema.

The head includes the stressed and unstressed syllables begin­ning with the first stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable. Head patterns are classified into three major groups: descending, ascending and level. In descending heads the voice moves down from a medium or high pitch level to the low one. There are four types of descending heads: the Stepping, the Falling, the Scandent, the Sliding. In ascending heads the voice moves from a low pitch level to the medium or high. There are two ascending heads: the Rising, the Climbing. In level heads all the syllables are pronounced on the same note of a pitch level. There are three types of level heads: the High Level, the Medium Level, the Low Level.

The last stressed syllable is called the nucleus. There are eight nuclear tones in Modern English: the Low Fall, the Low Rise, the High Fall, the High Rise, the Fall-Rise, the Rise-Fall, the Rise-Fall-Rise, the Mid-Level.

The unstressed and half-stressed syllables that follow the nucleus are called the tail.

The nucleus is the most important part of the intonation pat­tern as it defines the communicative type of the sentence, determines the semantic value of the intonation-group, indicates the communicative centre of the intonation-group or of the whole sentence.

The communicative centre is associated with the most important word or words of the intonation-group or of the sentence. The nuclear tone of the final intonation-group is determined by the communicative type of the whole sentence.

The communicative types of sentences are differentiated in speech according to the aim of the utterance from the point of view of communi­cation, i.e. in order to show if the sentence expresses a statement of fact, a question, a command or an exclamation. There are four communicative types of sentences:

1. Statements, e.g. I like music.

2. Questions, e.g. Can you prove it?

3. Imperative sentences or commands, e.g. Try it again.

4. Exclamations, e.g. Right you are!

The intonation pattern of the non-final intonation-group, mainly its nuclear tone, is determined by the semantic value of the intonation ­group and by its connection with the following one.

The falling nuclear tone shows that the non-final intonation-group is complete, important by itself and is not so closely connected with the following intonation-group.

A longer pause after an intonation-group pronounced with the falling tone makes the intonation-group even more significant. e.g. I'll tell him all I when he comes.

The rising nuclear tone shows that the non-final intonation-group is closely connected in meaning with the following intonation-group, is not important by itself and implies continuation. e.g. Generally speaking, I prefer tennis.

The intonation pattern is also modified by the speaker's attitude towards his utterance: e.g. Why? - detached, even unsympathetic Why? - wondering

Spoken English shows a marked contrast between its stressed and unstressed syllables. Words which bear the major part of information are generally stressed and are called content (or notional) words. These are: nouns, adjectives, notional verbs, adverbs, numerals, interrogative and demonstrative pro­nouns. The other words in a sentence are mostly form (or structura1) words: articles, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, auxiliary and modal verbs, per­sonal and possessive pronouns. They are generally unstressed. But the strong forms of auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns and form-words may be stressed when they are said in isolation, when they become the communicative centres of utter­ances.

e.g. What is he going to do? - do is the communicative centre. What is he going to do? - he is the communicative centre.

METHOD OF INDICATING INTONATION ON THE STAVES

Unstressed syllables are represented by dots; stressed syllables are marked by dashes or curves. A dash represents a level tone. A downward curve represents the final fall. An upward curve represents the final rise.

Two parallel lines (staves) represent the upper and the lower limits of human voice or the range of the voice.

The temporal component of intonation can be indicated graphically only as far as pauses are concerned.

Two vertical bars denote a long pause, which usually occurs at the end of a sentence. A single vertical bar denotes a short pause inside a sentence.

FUNDAMENTAL INTONATION PATTERNS AND THEIR USE

Intonation Pattern I (LOW PRE-HEAD+) LOW FALL (+TAIL)

I've just seen Tom. - Where?

Whose book is this? - Mary's, I think.

What's his job? - He's a doctor.

The Low Fall in the nucleus starts somewhat higher than the mid level or lower and usually reaches the lowest level. The unstressed syllables which form the tail are pronounced on the lowest level pitch. The unstressed syllables forming the pre-head are pronounced either on the low level pitch or rise gradually.

Stress-and-tone marks: Low Fall [ ], half-stressed syllable [ ].

This intonation pattern is used:

1. In statements, final, categoric, calm, reserved. e.g. Whose book is this? - It's Mother's.

2. In special questions, calm, serious, flat, reserved, very often unsympathetic. e.g. One book is missing. Which?

3. In imperatives, calm, unemotional, serious. e.g. I'll send it to him. - Don't. How can I get in touch with Nick? - Phone him.

4. In exclamations, calm, unsurprised, reserved. e.g. Would you like an apple? -Thank you. He's just arrived. - Fine!

EXERCISES

Read the following conversational situations, intone the replies according to the suggested attitudinal meanings and read them properly.

Statements (final, categoric, calm, reserved)

Whose pen is this? Patricia's.

Is your brother in? Yes.

Have you any cousins? No.

Whose exercise book is this? Mine.

How old is your brother? Ten.

How old are you? Twenty.

May we go? No, girls.

May I go? Yes, Betty.

Who is on duty today? I am.

May I switch off the tape-recorder? Yes, please.

Who is absent today? No one is.

When is he coming? Tomorrow.

Where is your sister? At the University.

May I ask you a question? Of course, you may.

Can I help you with the tape? Of course, you can.

What's your uncle's job? He's a turner.

Where is Ann? She's out now.

Where do you come from? Ukraine.

Why do you stay here so long? I have to.

Where is your teacher? At the dean's office.

Special Questions (calm, serious, flat, reserved, very often unsympathetic)

Someone'll have to do it. But who?

You'll find it in the drawer. In which drawer?

Will you give me your book? Which?

Will you switch on the tape-recorder? How?

May I go and see him? When?

I've got a new flat. Where?

I'm afraid I can't leave at once. Why?

Pass me the book, Tom. Which one?

He is on duty very often. How often?

Will you bring the tape? Which tape?

One book is missing. Which one?