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- •1. The Old Germanic Ls, their classification and principal features.
- •3. The chronological division of the history of English.
- •6. Oe dialects. The role of the Wessex dialect.
- •8. Major spelling changes in me, their causes.
- •4. The Scandinavian invasion and its effect on English.
- •9,10,11. The oe vowel system (monophthongs and diphthongs). Major changes.
- •12. Consonant changes in me and ne (growth of affricates, loss of certain consonants).
- •5. The Norman Conquest and its effect on the history of English.
- •14. The oe noun system (grammatical categories, major types of declension).
- •15,The changes of the noun grammatical categories in me and their causes.
- •16. The oe personal pronouns, their grammatical categories and declension. Lexical replacement in me.
- •17. The development of the adjective in me (decay of grammatical categories and declensions).
- •18. The oe demonstrative pronouns, their grammatical categories and declension. The rise of the articles.
- •21. Oe strong verbs and their further development.
- •22. Oe preterit-present verbs and their further development.
- •24. The rise of analytical forms in verbal system in me.
- •20. Oe weak verbs and their further development.
- •19. The oe verb (grammatical categories, morphological types).
- •31. Borrowings from classical Ls in me.
- •29. Oe vocabulary, its volume and etymological structure.
- •28. Types of syntactic relations in oe.
- •26. Causes of changes in English morphology.
- •2. The common features of germanic languages
- •25 Verbals in the history of English
- •27.Oe syntax
- •30.Word Order
31. Borrowings from classical Ls in me.
After the Norman Conquest the main spheres of the Latin L remained: church; law; academic activities.
The surge of interest in the classics during the Age of the Renaissance led to a new wave of borrowings from Latin and Greek (through Latin mainly).
Latin: abstract concepts (anticipate, exact, exaggerate, explain, fact, dislocate, accommodation, etc.); affixes de- (demolish, destroy, etc.),
ex- (extract, , explore, explain, etc.), re- (reread, retell, retry, etc.), -ate (locate, excavate, etc.), -ent (apparent, present, turbulent, etc.), -ct (correct, erect, etc.)
Greek: theatre (drama, episode, scene, theatre, etc.); literature (anapest, climax, epilogue, rhythm, etc.); rhetoric (dialogue, metaphor, etc.); roots for creation of new words; affixes -ism (humanism, mechanism, aphorism, etc.), -ist (protagonist, terrorist, cyclist, etc.),
anti- (antibody, antidote, antibiotic, etc.), di- (digest, diverse, etc.), neo- (neo-realism, neo-conservatism, etc.)
Greco-Latin Hybrids (words one part of which is Greek and the other one – Latin): e.g. tele-graph, socio-logy, tele-vision, etc.
Borrowings in NE.
In addition to the three main sources — Greek, Latin and French, English speakers of the NE period borrowed freely from many other Ls. It has been estimated that even in the 17th c. the English vocabulary contained words derived from no less than fifty foreign tongues. The main contributors to the vocabulary were Italian, Dutch, Spanish, German, Portuguese and Russian. A number of words were adopted from Ls of other countries and continents, which came into con¬tact with English: Persian, Chinese, Hungarian, Turkish, Malayan, Polynesian, the native Ls of India and America.
Borrowings from Germanic Ls are of special interest as English is a Germanic L too. The influence of Scandinavian in Early ME has certainly remained unsurpassed and the unique con¬ditions of close L contacts were never repeated. By the 15th— 16th c. the Germanic Ls had driven far apart;
Dutch made abundant contribution to English, particularly in the 15th and 16th c, when commercial relations between England and the Netherlands were at their peak. They specialised in wool weaving and brewing, which is reflected in the Dutch loan-words: pack, scour, spool, stripe (terms of weaving); hops, tub, scum. Extensive borrowing is found in nautical terminology: bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, freight, keel, skipper. The flourishing of art in the Netherlands accounts for some Dutch loan-words relating to art: easel, landscape, sketch.
The earliest Russian loan-words entered the English L as far back as the I6th c, when the English trade company (the Moskovy Company) established the first trade relations with Russia. English borrowings adopted from the 16th till the 19th c. indicate ar¬ticles of trade and specific features of life in Russia, observed by the English:, beluga, intelligentsia, muzhik, rouble, samovar, troika, tsar, vodka.
The loan-words adopted after 1917 reflect the new social relations and political institutions in the USSR: bolshevik, Komsomol, Soviet. Some of the new words are translation-loans: collective farm, Five-Year-Plan, wall newspaper.