Учебное пособие Английский для бакалавров. Часть 2

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в кàждом доме.

Îн попытàлся в кàчестве нити нàкàливàния использовàть железную проволоку. Íеудàчà. Çàменил ее угольным стерженьком, но он нà воздухе быстро перегорàл. Íàконец в 1872 г. Ëодыгин поместил угольный стерженек в стеклянный бàллон, из которого дàже не выкàчивàл воздух. Êислород выгорàл, кàк только уголек нàкàлялся, и дàльнейшее свечение происходило в инертной àтмосфере. Åще долгий год трудà — и полученà новàя, более совершеннàя конструкция. Òеперь в лàмпе двà стерженькà. Îдин горел первые тридцàть минут и выжигàл в бàллоне кислород, à второй ровно светил еще двà с половиной чàсà. Èменно тàкими лàмпàми былà освещенà улицà в Ïетербурге. Â 1872 г. À. Í. Ëодыгин подàет зàявку нà изобретение лàмпы нàкàливàния. ×ерез 2 годà, в 1874 г., он получàет привилегию (пàтент) нà это изобретение, и Ïетербургскàя àкàдемия нàук присуждàет ему Ëомоносовскую премию.

Íà волне àжиотàжà вокруг изобретения возникло ‘Òовàрищество электрического освещения À. Í. Ëодыгин и компàния’. Îднàко дельцы рàзных мàстей зàнялись спекуляциями в рàсчете нà будущие огромные прибыли. Îни остàвили изобретàтеля без грошà. Åму пришлось нàняться слесàреминструментàльщиком нà метàллургический зàвод.

Íо Ëодыгинà, человекà сильной воли, не сломилà неудàчà. Â нем продолжàл жить дух первооткрывàтеля. Ðàботà нà метàллургическом зàводе нàтолкнулà его нà мысль использовàть тепло электричествà для плàвки метàллà. Îднàко в Ðоссии его идеи не имели успехà. Ïришлось уехàть в промышленно рàзвитые стрàны — Ôрàнцию, ÑØÀ. Òàм он построил ряд крупных электропечей. Â ÑØÀ Ëодыгин сновà вернулся к проблеме лàмп нàкàливàния. Èменно он предложил использовàть вольфрàм — единственный метàлл, из которого производятся нити электрических лàмпочек сегодня.

ПАВЕЛ НИКОЛАЕВИЧ ЯБЛОЧКОВ (1847—1894)

Çàмечàтельный русский изобретàтель и конструктор Ïàвел Íиколàевич ßблочков вошел в историю техники кàк àвтор ‘свечи ßблочковà’, ‘русского светà’, ‘северного светà’. Ï. Í. ßблочков с детствà отличàлся пытливым умом, любил строить, конструировàть. Â 12 лет придумàл угломерный àппàрàт для землемерных рàбот. Îкончив военно-инженерное училище, стàл сàпером, но вскоре вышел в отстàвку. Îтстàвной поручик увлекàлся электротехникой. Òàлàнтливый инженер понимàл, кàкие возможности сулило применение электричествà в военном деле и в грàждàнской жизни.

 то время уже существовàли дуговые лàмпы, прàвдà, несовершенные. Èдея создàть электрическое освещение увлекàет его нàстолько, что он

бросàет рàботу, нà свои скромные средствà открывàет в Ìоскве лàборàторию и нàчинàет опыты. Âскоре он понял: нужно нàйти простой способ регулировàния рàсстояния между угольными стержнями, тогдà вольтовà дугà будет ярко, ровно светить. À решение действительно было близко. Îно было гениàльно по своей простоте. Îкàзàлось, не нужно изобретàть хитроумные устройствà для рàвномерного сближения выгорàвших угольных стержней. Äостàточно было их

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постàвить вертикàльно, пàрàллельно, изолировàв друг от другà кàолиновой проклàдкой определенной толщины. Íà вершинàх стержней он зàкрепил своеобрàзный зàпàл из метàллà, плохо проводящего ток. È зàпылàлà ровным, ярким светом ‘свечà ßблочковà’. 23 мàртà 1876 г. в Ïàриже он получил пàтент нà свое изобретение. Âскоре ßблочков пришел еще к одному гениàльному решению: он стàл питàть ‘русский свет’ переменным током тàк, кàк это происходит сегодня.

 последующие годы своей жизни Ï. Í. ßблочков посвящàет свой тàлàнт создàнию генерàторов электрического токà — динàмо-мàшин и гàльвàнических элементов.

Text B. ELECTRONICS IN THE INDUSTRIAL AGE

In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell published his famous treatise on electricity and magnetism. Being a theoretician, he developed four equations which explained all the experimental results in electricity and magnetism observed up until that time, and his equations have withstood the test of time and continue to serve as a basis for all electromagnetic calculations. His equations inspired Hertz to experiment with electromagnetic radiation.

In 1895 A. Popov and in 1899 Marconi demonstrated the first wireless communication systems. Wireless communication got the boost with the invention of the triode by De Forest in 1906 and the development of practical radio circuits by Armstrong.

Engineers having developed radio circuits, research laboratories turned their attention to the transmission of video as well as audio, and practical television systems were developed in the 1930s. During World War II electronic systems were developed for radar, sonar, fire control, navigation, communications, computation, and data processing. Shortly after the war the computer industry was born.

In 1947 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented the transistor. This device could perform all the functions of a vacuum tube triode with much lower device power dissipation.

Two more profound inventions occurred shortly thereafter. Kilby and Noyce invented the integrated circuit in 1959. Secondly, the ruby, gas, and semiconductor lasers were invented in 1959, 1960 and 1961, respectively. The integrated circuit allowed for a 106 or more increase in circuit density, decrease in device cost, decrease in device power, and increase in circuit reliability.

With the invention of the laser a few communication experts recognized the bandwidth potential of light wave communication. Transmission of light waves in the atmosphere proved unreliable, and so attention was focused on light wave transmission over glass fibers. The development of low-loss optical fibers followed. Today most long distance calls are transmitted by optical fibers.

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I. Make sure you know the words given above.

II. Read the following words. Pay attention to the stress displacement:

magnet – magnetic, atom – atomic, electron – electronic, dynamo – dynamic, theory – theoretic, biology – biological, history – historical, mechanism – mechanics.

III. Read the text ‘Electronics in the Industrial Age’. Find out what inventions the following dates deal with:

1873, 1895, 1947, 1959, 1960, 1961.

IV. Say if the following statements are true (T) or false (F). Consult the text ‘Electronics in the Industrial Age’.

1.In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell published his famous treatise on philosophy.

2.Maxwell developed equations which serve as a basis for all electromagnetic calculations.

3.The computer industry was born before World War I.

4.The integrated circuit was invented in 1969.

5.With the invention of the IC electronic devices have become cheaper and more reliable.

6.Today most long distance calls are transmitted by wire.

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V. Find in the text ‘Electronics in the Industrial Age’ sentences with Participle I and Participle II. State their forms and functions. Translate the sentences.

VI. Match the names and the inventions

5)Bardeen, Brattain and e) wireless communication system Shockley

VII. Retell the text ‘Electronics in the Industrial Age’.

VIII. Read the following text without a dictionary. Try to understand it.

The path to Popov’s great discovery was marked by the investigations of many scientists in different countries.

Popov’s scientific accomplishment was the culmination of the efforts of several generations of scientists, whose works make up the early history of radio which began with the investigations of Faraday. Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetic rotation and electromagnetic induction laid the foundation of present-day electrical engineering.

His natural-scientific conceptions created a revolution in the understanding of electrical phenomena, and are extremely important because they directed all attention to the medium surrounding the electrified body. Faraday’s theory of magnetic and electric lines of force proved to be exceedingly fruitful, and served as a starting point for J. C. Maxwell to deduce mathematically (and Hertz to detect experimentally) the existence of free electric waves. Later it was found that as early as 1832 Faraday himself was close to what triumphed in science more than half a century later.

Faraday’s scientific views were developed by his successor Maxwell, who worked in many fields of physics, mechanics, and even astronomy. However, his chief works are investigations in electromagnetism and in the kinetic theory of gases. Continuing Faraday’s work, Maxwell subjected his ideas to mathematical treatment and arrived at far-reaching conclusions when he advanced the electromagnetic theory of light, one of the greatest achievements of science of the 19th century. Maxwell considered light to be an electromagnetic phenomenon; he predicted mathematically that electric waves ought to propagate at a velocity equal to the ratio of electromagnetic and electrostatic units; as we know, this value coincides with the velocity of light (approximately 300,000 km. a second).

Of extraordinary value to radio was Maxwell’s conception of free electromagnetic waves, whose real existence was proved to the scientific world by

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the experimental investigations of Hertz. But this was a whole decade after the death of J. Clerk Maxwell who did not live to see his views accepted.

Deeply convinced of the truth of the Faraday-Maxwell theory, Hertz set himself the task of proving experimentally the existence of free electromagnetic waves; he established the fact that they are governed by the same laws (reflection, refraction and polarization) as light waves. One of the most brilliant experimenters in the history of natural science (let us not forget that he had not yet reached the age of 37 when he died), Hertz made experiments that served as a basis for the invention of wireless telegraphy. These experiments had to do with the Hertz vibrator and resonator described in his first work entitled ‘Concerning Extremely Rapid Electric Oscillations’.

The scientific value of Hertz’ discovery, however, is not the less though he did not find a practical application for it. Hertz’ discovery was immediately recognized throughout the world, and Popov was one of the first to begin elaborating further this extremely important scientific advancement. He read papers and delivered public lectures, always pointing out that this new achievement of science is not only of theoretical value, that it may find a practical application.

May 7 (April 25, old style) 1895 is considered to be the date of the invention of radio. It was on this day that Popov read a paper in the Physics Department of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society entitled ‘On the Relation of Metal Powders to Electric Oscillations’. However, Popov arrived at his discovery much earlier; not at once, of course, but as a result of extensive research which he had conducted over a period of several years studying electric waves and oscillations. The May 7th address was a legal confirmation of Popov’s right as the inventor of wireless telegraphy.

Popov was undoubtedly an original and experienced experimenter.

But in addition, Popov was the first radio specialist to construct radio instruments as well as radio stations in Russia. This side of his activities was above all closely connected with the Navy, the most prominent representatives of which valued Popov especially as a practical specialist in installing radio in the Navy.

In March 1897, he delivered a lecture at the Kronstadt Naval Officers’ Club, dealing with the possibility of wireless telegraphy through the use of his method. Popov’s project was well received and was approved by the higher authorities.

The year of 1897 was that of a considerable victory for the inventor of radio, who began experimenting on a large scale.

The first radiogram was received on the island of Gogland on January 24. It was an order of the Head of the Chief Naval Staff, Vice-Admiral Avelan, on the rendering of aid to Finnish fishermen who had been carried out to sea on an ice-floe. It ran as follows :

‘To the commander of the ice-breaker Yermak’.

‘An ice-floe with 50 fishermen on it broke away near Lavensari. Render immediate aid to save these people’.

The accident was reported by telephone to St. Petersburg, and from there a telegram was sent to Kotka, whence the order was radioed to Gogland. The chief of the Gogland station, Zalevsky, wrote that the report was received clearly, and was immediately passed on to the ‘Yermak’. At four the next morning the Yermak set out

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on the search for the men and returned at 5 o’clock in the afternoon with all of them on board.

News of the fishermen being saved from imminent death through the use of wireless telegraphy, which conveyed to the Yermak the message, spread throughout Russia.

The very next day after the saving of the fishermen Popov was swamped with telegrams of congratulation expressing pride and admiration for this achievement of Russian science. The victory of Gogland also belonged to Makarov who designed the Yermak and on whose initiative it was built.

All the more dear to Popov were the lines of Makarov’s telegram of congratulation sent to him on January 26. ‘On behalf of all the Kronstadt sailors I heartily congratulate you on the brilliant success of your invention. The opening up of communications by wireless telegraphy between Kotka and Gogland over a distance of 43 versts is a victory of the greatest scientific importance’.

IX. Read the text again. Identify the key words and write them out.

X. Find the key sentence in each paragraph of the text given above.

XI. Use the key words and key sentences to make up a summary of the text.

XII. Suggest a headline to the text above.

Text C. THE INFORMATION AGE

In the past few centuries technological developments have created isolated information industries. The major inventions and industries which developed as a result of these inventions are listed in Table 1. Electrical and computer engineers play a major role in four of these six industries, and they will likely play a major role in all six industries.

Table 1. Evolution of the Information Industry.

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These inventions have greatly impacted our lives through the creation of new industries and the easy access to information around the world. However, none of these discoveries has impacted our lives as greatly as the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has created the information age.

Already the IC has had a profound impact on our society. The slide rule, mechanical calculator, and typewriter industries are dead and their products have been relegated to museums. Text, data, graphics, voice and video can be electronically processed, transmitted, and stored at a cost most citizens can afford. The boundaries between the traditional information industries are being blurred, and their survival is in doubt. Already numerous collaborative agreements and mergers are taking place among these industries. Will the photographic industry survive in the information age? Will the printing industry go the way of the dinosaur? Telephone, cable, and broadcasting networks are fighting for survival in the information age. Most likely the traditional information industries will be realigned along the functional lines in Table 2. There is no doubt that we will witness profound changes in the traditional information industries over the next decade.

Even more profound is the impact that the IC has had on global politics, e.g. the formation of the European Economic Community at the expense of national autonomy, the push toward open markets, the rise of global industries, and the decline of manufacturing jobs.

Wars will be fought in the information age, both bloody and unbloody, but ultimately in the information age we will see more transparent national boundaries, less national autonomy, and a higher world order. This is so because with the powerful technologies at our disposal, this is the only path to survival as a people. It will not be an easy road. Change never is.

Globally industry and governments are going through a period of rebirth, a period of a global renaissance. This renaissance is the result of the scientific discoveries and technological advances of the past two centuries, the IC having perhaps the most profound impact on society that the world has ever experienced.

Table 2.

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The New Information Industry Players

1)Generation and production of information

2)Transmission networks

3)Information processing systems

4)Information storage systems

5)Display system

I.Read the text ‘The Information Age’. Write out all the words you don’t know. Look them up in the dictionary.

II. Find in the text ‘The Information Age’ the sentence with the Absolute Participle Construction. Translate it.

III. Make a written translation of the text ‘The Information Age’.

IV. Speak about the evolution of the information industry. Use Table 1.

CONVERSATION

TOWN

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Situated south of Moscow in the central part of the East European plain on the Middle Russian Hills, the Tula region covers an area of 25,700km 2 (1.5% of Russia’s territory). The region’s territory embraces 21 cities and towns and 50 urban settlements. Total population is 1,840,000, out of which urban population accounts for 81,4%.

The center of the region is the city of Tula with the population over half a million. Tula, which is first mentioned in the chronicles in 1146, was founded on the banks of the Upa river.

In the Middle Ages it was the central strategic point in the defense of Moscow. This had a decisive influence on the specifics of the

region’s industrial development.

Tula has long been famous for its blacksmiths and gunsmiths. The trade of the blacksmiths began to develop in Tula in the 16th century. Tula blacksmiths specialized in making rifles The whole families and even streets were engaged in making this or that part of the rifle. That is why many streets of Tula are still called after the parts of the rifle – Zamochnaya, Kurkovaya, Stvolnaya, etc.

By the 16th –17th century, Tula had grown into a developed center of weaponmaking crafts and metal treatment. In 1712 following a decree issued by Peter the Great a state gun-making plant was founded in Tula.

Tula was the first place in Russia to develop ferrous metallurgy and metalprocessing industry. In metal-processing Tula craftsmen acquired great skill. But most of the enterprises were handicraft artels and small plants producing samovars and different handmade goods.

With the development of capitalism in Russia industrial enterprises in Tula increased in number. By the end of the 19th century Tula had about 200 enterprises with 13 thousand workers.

At present there are many plants and factories in Tula.

Being part of the Central Economic Region, the Tula region has close economic ties with other regions of the Russian Federation.

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