ICCEP

In the 1st and 3rd persons the combination “let+infinitive” is used: e.g. Let him do this work.

Let her translate the article. Let us leave this place.

The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic. In old English the pronoun-subject was generally placed after the verb. This word order is still found in some set phrases:

e.g. Look you! Mind you! Go you!

In Modern English it is placed before the verb in the usual place of the subject: e.g. You take my place in the car.

You sit here.

Never you mind what I came here for.

3.The negative imperative is formed by means of the auxiliary “to do” even if we have the verb “to be” which in the indicative mood does not require that auxiliary:

e.g. Don’t be late (Compare: I am not late) Do not forget.

Don’t be so noisy.

4.The emphatic imperative is formed with the help of the auxiliary verb “to do” followed by the infinitive:

e.g. Do tell me what he said. Do be silent.

5.“Will you?” often follows the imperative. In such imperative sentences the order becomes modified by the addition of “will you?” into a kind of request:

e.g. Bring me my spectacles, will you? Just give me some money, will you?

Pronouns

Pronouns include a miscellaneous group of words which function in the sentence as noun pronouns or as adjective pronouns. They do not name objects or qualities, they only point to them. In other words, they are devoid of concrete lexical meaning. They have a generalized meaning, which becomes clear only in the context or situation.

There are the following classes of pronouns in English: personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they; possessive pronouns: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, they;

reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves.

There is one more reflexive pronoun which is formed from the indefinite pronoun: one – oneself.

Emphatic pronouns have the same forms as reflexive pronouns. They are homonyms. They are used for emphasis. They are rendered into Russian as “сам, сама, сами, само”. For example, You yourself told them the story. My mother herself opened the door.

They have the function of apposition in the sentence and can be placed either immediately after their head-word or at the end of a sentence. They are strongly stressed.

Demonstrative pronouns are: this, that, same, such.

Indefinite pronouns express various degrees and various kinds of indefiniteness. There are the following subgroups among them:

1)indefinite pronouns proper:

a)some, any, no;

b)their derivatives;

c)one, none.

2)distributive pronouns:

a)all, every, each, other, neither, either, both;

b)everybody, everyone, everything.

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3)quantitative pronouns: much, many, little, few, a little, a few, a lot of, lots of, a great many, a great deal, etc.

4)reciprocal pronouns: each, other, one another.

5)interrogative pronouns: who (whom), whose, what, which, how much, how many.

6)conjunctive pronouns: who (whom), whose, what, which, how much, how many, that

(when they serve to connect subordinate clauses with the principal clause.)

7) relative pronouns: who (whom), whose, which and that. They are used to introduce attributive clauses.

Personal Pronouns

1.The personal pronouns are: I, he, she, it, we, you, they. I I – We

II You

III he, she, it – they

The personal pronouns have the grammatical categories of person, case, number and (in the third person singular) gender.

The personal pronouns have two cases: the nominative case and the objective case and two numbers – singular and plural.

The second-person pronoun “you” is both singular and plural.

The pronouns of the third person “he”, “she”, “it” distinguish gender. Male beings (men, boy, uncle, etc) are referred to as “he”; female beings (woman, girl, aunt, etc.) are referred to as “she”; inanimate things (book, tree, wall, etc.) are referred to as “it”.

e.g. Her father works at a comprehensive school. He teaches foreign languages. Clara was pleased. She was not afraid of any unpleasant conversation. Tod went toward the tree. That was the third year it had no blossom.

2. Personal pronouns may have different functions in the sentence, those of subject, object, predicative. Personal pronouns in the Nominative Case are used in the function of the subject and predicative.

e.g. I met a friend of mine on my way to school (subject). It was he who did it at last (predicative).

Personal pronouns in the Objective Case are used mainly as object (with or without a reposition). In colloquial style the Objective Case is used as predicative in sentences like: It was me. It is him, etc.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns have distinctions of person, number and gender.

Possessive pronouns have two forms: the dependent (or conjoint) form and the independent (or absolute) form.

The conjoint form comes before the noun it modifies and is used as an attribute. e.g. Her parents are in Italy now.

The absolute form is used when the possessive pronouns may be used as the subject, the predicative and the object. The group “preposition + absolute form” may be used as the attribute.

e.g. My book is on the table and yours is on the shelf. (subject) This collection of stamps is mine. (predicative)

I’ve lost my pen. Will you give me yours? (object)

Helen is a friend of mine. (attribute)

Possessive pronouns are often used before the names of the parts of the body, clothing, things belonging to a person, etc. In that case they are not translated into Russian.

e.g. He took off his coat and went to the table.

Он снялпальто и пошёл к столу.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive and emphatic pronouns in English have the same form.

Used as reflexive pronouns all these pronouns correspond to the Russian particle – “ся”. They are always unstressed in the sentence:

to enjoy oneself- наслаждаться, получать удовольствие; to wash oneself- умываться, мыться;

to dress oneself- одеваться;

to amuse oneself- развлекаться.

e.g. He en'joyed himself at his 'friend’s 'birthday 'party im mensely.

Used as emphatic pronouns these pronouns correspond to the Russian pronoun “сам”

(“сама”, “сами”) and are always stressed. e.g. He trans'lated the 'article him self.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns (who, whom – the objective case of “who”, whose, which, that) not only point back to a noun or pronoun mentioned before, but also have conjunctive power. They introduce attributive clauses.

“Who”, (“whom”) is used in reference to human beings or animals.

e.g. The girl who is speaking to our teacher is my sister. The sound frightened the cat who was lying under the table.

“Whose” is mainly used in reference to human beings or animals, but it may be applied to things.

e.g. Mr. Wood, whose son is my classmate, wants to speak to you. Again he (Soames) looked like a bird that is shot and dying... whose poor eyes look at you who have shot it, with a slow, soft, unseeing look... (Galsworthy)

...he wore a stiff standing collar whose upper edge almost reacted his ears... (Twain) “Which” is used with reference to things and animals.

e.g. Here was her own style – a bed which did not look like one and many mirrors. (Galsworthy). The dog, which is standing in front of our house, must be our neighbours.

“That” is used in reference to lifeless things and living beings.

e.g. This is the book that I bought yesterday. The man that I told you about has left for Rome.

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Types of Questions

The basic types of questions in English are the following: general, special, alternative, disjunctive.

General questions (yes-or-no-questions) are formed according to the following pattern:

Structural Verb – Subject — Notional Verb – Secondary Parts of the Sentence

General questions require the answer yes or no; they are uttered with a rising intonation,

e.g.

Are you asking me?

Shall I begin? Do you know it? Has he come yet?

When used in the negative form, such questions emphasize astonishment or doubt, e.g. Don’t you know it?

Haven’t you read this book?

They correspond to the Russian questions with the particles разве, неужели.

Special questions (whquestions) begin with an interrogative word showing what kind of information is required. They are pronounced with a falling intonation, e.g.

What are you doing? When will he come? Why didn’t they come? How long did it take you?

In questions on the subject of the sentence the direct word order is not used, e.g. Who told you that?

What stands here?

Alternative questions imply choice. Structurally they are compound sentences with two coordinated interrogative clauses, the second of which is often used in elliptical form. The first clause is spoken with a rising intonation, the second with the falling one, e.g.

Are you going or (are you) staying?

Will he go to Moscow or (will he go) to Kiev?

Disjunctive questions (also tailor tag-questions) require the answer yes or no. Although they nominally ask the opinion of the person to whom they are addressed, they do not really do so; they take his agreement for granted. Therefore both types of such questions are usually spoken with a falling intonation.

Disjunctive questions are used only in conversation and in informal correspondence. The chief points to notice are as follows:

1.A positive statement takes a negative tag, and a negative statement takes a positive tag, e.g. It is very cold today, isn’t it?

He doesn’t live here, does he?

2.Semi-negative words like little, few, hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom are treated as

negatives, and take a positive tag, e.g.

Few people knew the answer, did they?

Little progress has been made, has it?

We could scarcely hear what he said, could we? You seldom see them now, do you?

Though few and little are negative, a few and a little are positive, and therefore need a negative tag, e.g.

A few people knew the answer, didn’t they? A little progress has been made, hasn’t it?

The adverb only may take either a positive or a negative tag, e.g.

There wereonly six people present, werethere (weren’t they)? The positive is more usual.

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3.Although everybody and everyone are singular, for the purpose of the tag they are usually treated as plural, and referred to by they, e.g.

Everybody can’t come in first, can they? Everyone cheered wildly, didn’t they?

4.The interrogative form of I am used in a negative tag is aren’t (or am I not, which is

very formal), e.g.

I’m rather late, aren’t I? I’m older than you, aren’t I?

5. If the speaker is uncertain of his statement, the tag is presented more as a true question with a rising intonation used, e.g.

You can drive a car, can’t you? It is a long way from here, isn’t it?

The Numeral

The numerals denote an abstract number or the order of things in succession. In accordance with this distinction the numerals fall into two groups: cardinal numerals (cardinals) and ordinal numerals (ordinals).

Morphological Composition

The Cardinals

Among the cardinals there are simple derivative and composite words.

The cardinals from one to twelve, hundred, thousand, million are simple words; those frот thirteen to nineteenare derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -teen;the cardinals denoting tens are derived from the corresponding simple ones bуmeans of the suffix -ty.

The cardinals from twenty-one to twenty-nine, from thirty-one to thirty-nine, etc. and those over hundred are composite words.

In cardinals consisting of tens and units the two words are hyphenated: 21 – twenty-one, 35 – thirty-five, 72 – seventy-two.

In cardinals including hundreds and thousands the words denoting units and tens are joined to those denoting hundreds, thousands, by means of the conjunction and: 103 – one hundred and three, 225 – two hundred and twenty-five, 3038 – three thousand and thirty-eight, 3651 – three thousand six hundred and fifty-one.

The Ordinals

Among the ordinals there are also simple, derivative and composite-derivative words.

The simple ordinals are first, second and third.

The derivative ordinals are those derived from the simple ones and derivative cardinals are formed by means of the suffix -th: four –fourth, ten – tenth, twenty – twentieth.

The composite-derivative ordinals are those formed from composite cardinals. In this case only the last component of the composite numeral has the form of the ordinal: twenty-first, fortysecond, sixty-seventh, one hundred and first, etc.

Morphological Characteristics

Numerals do not undergo any morphological changes, that is, they do not have morphological categories. In this they differ from nouns with numerical meaning. Thus the numerals ten (десять), hundred (сто), thousand (тысяча) do not have plural forms: two hundred and fifty, four thousand people, etc., whereas the corresponding homonymous nouns ten (десяток), hundred (сотня), thousand (тысяча), do: to count in tens, hundreds of people, thousands of birds, etc.

Syntactic Functions

Though cardinals and ordinals have mainly similar syntactic functions they differ in certain details.

The most characteristic function of both is that of premodifying attribute: two rooms, the third person, etc. In this connection it must be remembered that while the ordinals are used as ordinary, attributes govern the number of the noun they modify: one page, but two pages.

Note 1. Quite unlike Russian composite cardinals ending in one (twenty-one, two hundred and one, etc.) require a plural noun: twenty-one pages, two hundred and one pages.

Note 2. In numbering the items of certain sets of things cardinals, not ordinals, are used to modify the nouns denoting these things. The cardinals thus used are always postmodifying. The nouns modified do not take an article: page three, lesson one, room twenty-three, etc.

Both cardinals and ordinals may have the functions of subject, object, predicative and adverbial modifier of time:

e.g. Tree of us went home. I saw two of them in the forest. They were seven. She got up at five today.

In all these cases, however, a noun is always implied, that is, the numeral functions as a substitute for the noun either mentioned in the previous context or self-evident from the

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situation. The only case in which the numerals (cardinals) can really have the function of subject, object or predicative is when they are used with their purely abstract force.

e.g. five is more than three; two plus two is four.

The Plural of Nouns

Countable nouns have numbers: singular and plural.

The plural is usually formed by adding -s or-es (after о or ss, x, sh, en ).

Some borrowed words ending in -o add only -s: piano – pianos. There are, however, many peculiarities:

1.Some nouns ending in -f or -fe drop -f or -fe and add -ves. These nouns are: life, knife, calf, shelf, leaf, loaf, thief, half and some others, e.g.

wife – wives, thief – thieves, half – halves.

Other nouns ending in -f or -fe add -s in the plural in the ordinary way. e.g. cliffcliffs, handkerchiefhandkerchiefs.

2.Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y into –ies, e.g.

hobby – hobbies, fly – flies.

3.Some nouns still take the old English -en or -ren for their plurals, e.g. ox – oxen, child – children .

4.Seven nouns form their plurals by a change of root vowels: man – men, woman – woman, mouse – mice, foot – feet, tooth – teeth, louse – lice, goose – geese.

The plural of surnames is formed according to the basic rules, e.g. Jim and Mary Cox – the Coxes, John and Molly Jones – the Joneses. Mind: Paul and Susan Crosly – the Croslys.

5.The plural of abbreviations is sometimes formed by doubling a letter, e.g.

M.S (manuscript) becomes MSS;

p (page) becomes pp; but more often -by putting an “s” after the full stop.

M.P. (Member of Parliament) becomes M.P.s.; M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) becomes M.D.S; Co (Company) becomes Co.s.

6.Some names of fish and animals do not change in the plural, e.g. a sheep – two sheep; a deer – several deer;

But a fish – three fishes. In the latter case “kinds of fish” are meant.

7.In certain nouns that express number, weight, measurement the singular form is often used in the plural meaning – especially when such nouns are used with a numeral, e.g.

Two dozen books were sent to the library. But: Pack the books in dozens, please.

Some nouns are used with a verb only in the plural. They are: wages (заработная плата), goods (товар), clothes (одежда), riches (богатство.богатства), proceeds (выручка), scissors (ножницы), trousers (брюки), spectacles (очки), scales (весы), e.g.

Where are my spectacles?

Mind the fact that some nouns which are plural in English are singular in Russian and vice versa, e.g.

My watch is on the table. (Мои часы на столе).

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8. Some other nouns are used with a verb only in the singular. They are: information (информация), advice (совет), furniture (мебель), progress (прогресс), money (деньги), news (новости), series (ряд, серия).

e.g. The news he gave us was very interesting. He gave us many good advice.

The names of sciences -mathematics, physics, linguistics, etc. are used as singular, e.g. Mathematics is very interesting for Peter.

9. a) The nouns works (завод, заводы), means (средство, средства) are used both in the singular and in the plural, e.g.

A new metallurgical works will be built in this town. There are four works in this town. b) Identical singular and plural forms are also typical of nationality nouns ending in -

ese, -ss, e.g.

Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Swiss

We met a Japanese on our holiday.

10.Plural of compound nouns.

a)In compound nouns usually the head-noun takes the plural form, e.g.

mother-in-law – mothers-in-law; passer-by – passers-by; editor-in-chief – editors-in-

chief.

b) In compound nouns formed with prepositions or adverbs only the first component takes the plural form, e.g.

looker-on – lookers-on;

This rule also concerns the compound nouns with an adjective as the last element: e.g. court-martial – courts-martial.

с) When compounds are spelt as one word last element is made plural. e.g. bookcase – bookcases, armchair – armchairs.

d) If the first word of the compound nouns are nouns man or woman a double plural is used, e.g.

woman-teacher – women-teachers; manservant – menservants.

11. There also exist foreign plurals in English:

From Greek: phenomenon [ ] – phenomena [ ], crisis [ ] – crises [ ], criterion [ ] – criteria [ ]

From Latin: datum [ ] – data [ ]

Words of foreign origin that are frequently used have an English plural, e.g. formulas, vacuums, ultimatums, abscissas, etc.

Sometimes there are two plural forms with different meanings: index – indexes (lists of contents of books); indices (a mathematical term); genius – geniuses (extraordinarily intelligent persons); genii (supernatural beings); penny– pence (value), pennies (coin); cloth – cloths (kinds of cloth); clothes (articles of dress); staff – staffs (military staff – штаб), staves (sticks).

Have, Have Got

The verb “have” has different functions in the sentence. It can be:

1)a notional verb;

2)an auxiliary verb;

3)a modal verb.

As a notional verb “have” means “to possess”. There are some differences in the use of “to have” as a notional verb in British and American English.

In British English interrogative and negative sentences are formed without auxiliaries while in American English the auxiliary verb “do” is used.

In Modern English there is a tendency to use the auxiliary verb “do” in negative and interrogative sentences in colloquial speech, e.g.

Do you have an English-Russian dictionary?

The negative form with “have” is built up in two ways:

1)with the help of the negative particle “not”;

2)with the help of the pronoun “no”.

e.g.

1)I haven’t a brother. (with “not”)

2)I have no brother. (with “no”)

In past time context the auxiliary “did” is used in negative and interrogative sentences in British English too.

e.g. Did you have a car last year? I didn’t have a car last year.

Note 1. “Do” is used for negative and interrogative forms with the action which is considered to be regular, e.g.

They have much snow in Siberia. Do they have much snow in Siberia? They don’t have much snow in Siberia.

Note 2. “Have got” is used instead of “have” for some particular occasions (what smb has got at the moment about him), e.g.

Have you got a text-book about you?

Note 3. “Do” is used in negative and interrogative forms in set-phrases: to have breakfast (lunch, dinner, tea, coffee ), a good time, a bath, a shower. “To have” means to obtain, to receive, to take, to get, e.g.

Do you have a bath every day?

He doesn’t have breakfast early on Sundays.

Note 4. “Have got’ is used instead of “have” in colloquial English, e.g. I have got a lot of English books.

The meaning of “Have got”

1.Have got = must. e.g. I’ve got to go home.

2.The present perfect of the verb “to have”. e.g. I’ve got a letter from my sister this week.

3.“Have got” is used on some particular occasion. e.g. Have you got a spare pen?

4.Have got=have=to possess. e.g. He has got a large family.

“Have to” as a modal verb equivalent expresses obligation or necessity due to some circumstances. In interrogative and negative sentences the auxiliary verb “to do” is used in the present and past tenses (in the future the auxiliary verbs shall, will are used).

e.g. He had to learn this poem better. Did he have to learn this poem better? He didn’t have to learn this poem.

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Set of questions № 1

With a countable noun in the singular

1.'This is a calendar, | isn’t it?

Yes, | it is.

2. 'This is not a calendar, | is it?

Yes, | it is.

3. 'This is a stamp, | isn’t it?

No, | it isn’t.

4. 'This is not a stamp, | is it?

No, | it isn’t.

5. 'Is 'this a calendar?

Yes, | it is.

6. 'Is 'this a stamp?

No, | it isn’t.

7.'Is 'this a calendar | or a stamp? 'This is a calendar.

8.'Isn’t this a calendar?

Yes, | it is.

9 'Isn’t 'this a stamp?

No, | it isn’t.

10. What is it? What is this? What’s this? 'This is a calendar.

Set of questions № 2

With a countable noun in the plural

1.'These are books, | aren’t they?

Yes, | they are.

2.'These are not books, | are they?

Yes, | they are.

3.'These are notebooks, | aren’t they?

No, | they aren’t.

4.'These are not notebooks, | are they?

No, | they aren’t.

5.'Are 'these books?

Yes, | they are.

6.'Are 'these notebooks?

No, | they aren’t.

7.'Are 'these books | or notebooks?

'These are books.

8.'Aren’t 'these books?

Yes, | they are.

9.'Aren’t 'these notebooks?

No, | they aren’t.

10.What are these?

'These are books.

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