Meyer R., Koehler J., Homburg A. Explosives. Wiley-VCH, 2002 / Explosives 5th ed by Koehler, Meyer, and Homburg (2002)

The advantage of the method is that when the propellant is periodically exposed to the atmosphere, it can reabsorb moisture, which means that the decomposition takes place under realistic conditions. The test is now much less frequently applied ever since a powder manufactured with pentanol as a solvent, which had been tested by this method, had decomposed on board of two warships, which were sunk by the resulting explosion (1911). The Vieille test is now used only in France and in Belgium.

Volume of Explosion Gases

fume volume; Normalgasvolumen; volume des produits d’explosion

The volume of the gases (fumes) formed by the explosive reaction, in liters per kg of explosive material, as calculated from the chemical composition of the explosive. The calculation of the number of gas moles of the decomposition products takes the equilibria (e.g. water gas equilibrium and Boudourd equilibrium) at the explosion temperature and during cooling to 1500 K into account. Below 1500 K the equilibria are considered as “frozen”.

Conventionally, the volume of explosion gases refers to 0 °C and 1.013 bar. Water is considered to be gaseous.

The volume can be determinated experimentally by test explosion in the W Bichel Bomb.

Volume Strength

Same as Cartridge Strength or W Bulk Strength. Also W Weight Strength and W Strength.

Wasacord

Trade name of a detonating cord distributed Germany and exported by WASAGCHEMIE. It contains about 12 g PETN/m (W also Multicord).

Wasamon F; W

Trade name of powder form blasting agents distributed by WASAGCHEMIE in Germany. Both can be applied in large-diameter boreholes, Wasamon F also as a free flowing, uncartridged material.

Water-driven Injector Transport

Emulsionsförderung; transport par injection d’eau

The liquid nitrate esters – nitroglycerine and nitroglycol – are highly sensitive to impact; handling of these substances in the factory in free unbound condition is dangerous. They are conveyed in the form of emulsions: the explosive oil is sucked up by means of a compressed- water-driven injector, and the emulsion sent through conduit pipes for processing (mixing houses). It is then separated from the carrier water and, if required, is dried by passing through a salt filter.

Water-gel Explosives

Slurries; Sprengschlamm; bouillies

W Slurries and W Emulsion Slurries.

Water Resistance

Wasserfestigkeit; resistance´ a l’eau

In the USA the following method is employed for testing the water resistance of commercial explosives:

Sixteen regularly spaced holes (about 6 mm P) are cut in the cartridge paper (30 mm in diameter, 200 mm long) of the explosive to be tested, and the flaps on the front faces are sealed with tallow. The cartridges thus prepared are placed in a flat, porcelaincoated dish covered with a thin layer of sand, and water at 17–25 °C (63–77 °F) is poured over the sand layer up to a height of about 25 mm. The cartridges are left under water for a certain period of time, are then taken out, the seal is cut off at one end, and the cartridge is tested for detonation and transmission with the aid of a No. 6 blasting cap. The criterion for the water resistance of the explosive is the time of exposure to water, after which it still retains its capacity to detonate the cartridge in three trials, without leaving any non-detonated residual explosive behind.

There is no generally accepted quality classification. Nevertheless, water resistance of an explosive is considered to be satisfactory, acceptable, or poor if the cartridge can still be detonated after 24, 8, or 2 hours respectively.

In Germany, the following method for testing the water resistance of powder-form permissibles has been laid down at the Test Station at Dortmund-Derne.

A train of four cartridges is fixed in a file on a wooden board; the first of the four cartridges is equipped with a detonator No. 8. Five longitudinal, 2 cm long notches, uniformly distributed over the circumference,

Wetter

Prefix given to all permitted explosives in Austria and in the Germany. The following list gives an overview of all German permitted explosives:

The powder form explosives are cartridged and inserted in plastic hoses as a loading device.

All class II and class III explosives belong to the group of ion exchanged explosives; for test conditions and applicability restrictions

W Permitted Explosives.

Wetter-Dynacord

Trade name of a detonating cord manufactured by DYNAMIT NOBEL, Troisdorf, Germany, with high safety against ignition of methane/air mixtures.

X-Ray Flash

By using special X-ray tubes and very fast high-voltage circuitry, it is possible to generate and trigger ultrashort X-ray flashes down to the millimicrosecond range.

*serves also used for smooth blasting metal plating shot, see W Smooth Blasting, W Explosive Forming.

These X-ray flashes are an important means of short-time photography because they enable fast occuring phenomena to be recorded by means of X-ray photographs.

In practice, this possibility of short-time radioscopy of test specimens is made use of for shaped charges (W Shaped Charges). Thus, it is possible, during a desired time of detonation, to make a photographic record, in the form of single X-ray photographs, of the penetration and streaming behaviour of the sting into a target.

Zinc Peroxide

Zinkperoxid; peroxyde de zinc

n ZnO2 · Zn(OH)2, n ≥ 3

light yellow amorphous powder oxygen value: 12.3–14.0% bulk density: 0.98–1.70 g/cm3

Fp.: decomposition upwards of 200 °C

Zinc peroxide is not hygroscopic and insoluble in water and organic solvents. The compound results from reaction of an ammoniacal zinc sulfate solution wit 30% hydrogen peroxide at 80°–95 °C. The bulk density and oxygen value can ba varied over a relatively wide range if certain temperature and concentration conditions are maintained.

Zinc peroxide is used in pyrotechnic mixtures and primer compositions whose reaction products should not contain any corrosive and hazardous components (W SINTOX Primer Compositions).

, Fifth Edition Rudolf Meyer, Josef Köhler, Axel Homburg

Literature

Books*)

1. Manuals:

Escales, R.: Die Schießbaumwolle, Veit, Leipzig 1905 Escales, R.: Nitroglycerin und Dynamit, Veit, Leipzig 1908 Escales, R.: Ammonsalpetersprengstoffe, Veit, Leipzig 1909 Escales, R.: Chloratsprengstoffe, Veit, Leipzig 1910

Brunswig, H.: Schlagwettersichere Sprengstoffe, W. de Gruyter, Leipzig 1910

Escales, R.: Nitrosprengstoffe, Veit, Leipzig 1915

Escales, R. und Stettbacher, A.: Initialsprengstoffe, Veit, Leipzig 1917 Kast, H.: Sprengund Zündstoffe, Vieweg, Braunschweig 1921 Brunswig, H.: Explosivstoffe, W. de Gruyter, Leipzig 1923

Beyling, C. und Drehkopf, K.: Sprengstoffe und Zündmittel, Springer, Berlin 1936

Stettbacher, A.: Sprengund Schießstoffe, Rascher, Zürich 1948 Naoum, Ph. und Berthmann, A.: Explosivstoffe, Hanser, München 1954

Davis, T. L.: The Chemistry of Powder and Explosives, Wiley, New York 1956

Cook, M. A.: The Science of High Explosives, Chapman & Hall, London 1958, korrig. Nachdruck 1971 (Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co. Inc., Huntington, NY, American Chemical Society Monograph Series No. 139); German Translation: Lehrbuch der brisanten Sprengstoffe, MSW-Chemie, Langelsheim 1965

McAdam, R. und Westwater, R.: Mining Explosives, Oliver & Boyd, London 1958

Taylor, J. und Gay, P. F.: British Coal Mining Explosives, George Newnes, London 1958

Taylor, W.: Modern Explosives, The Royal Institute of Chemistry, London 1959

Berthmann, A.: Explosivstoffe, in: Winnacker-Küchler, Chemische Technologie, 3. Aufl., Hanser, München 1972, Bd. 5, S. 463 – 527 Urbanski, T.: Chemie und Technologie der Explosivstoffe, VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1961 –1964, (3 Bde); englische erweiterte Auflage: Chemistry and Technology of Explosives, Pergamon Press, Oxford 1964 –1967, 1984 (4 Bde)

Kreuter, Th.: Sprengund Zündmittel, VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1962

*The sequence of listing was made according to the year of publication. The titles published prior to 1970 are historical interest only, they are out of print and only available in a few libraries.

Roth, J. F.: Sprengstoffe, in: Ullmanns Enzyklopädie der technischen Chemie, 3. Aufl., Urband & Schwarzenberg, München und Berlin 1965, Bd. 16, S. 56 –109

Calzia, J.: Les Substances Explosives et leurs Nuisances, Dunod, Paris 1969

Newhouser, C. R.: Introduction to Explosives, The National Bomb Data Center, Gaithersburg, USA 1973

Cook, M. A.: The Science of Industrial Explosives, IRECO Chemicals, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, 1974

Lyle, F.A. and Carl, H.: Industrial and Laboratory Nitrations, ACS Symposium Series No. 22, American Chemical Society, Washington DC, 1976

Oswatitsch, K.: Grundlagen der Gasdynamik, Springer, Wien, New York 1976

Romocki, S. J. von: Geschichte der Explosivstoffe, Bd. 1 und 2, Verlag Gerstenberg, Hildesheim, 1976, Nachdruck der Originalausgabe 1895/96, Berlin

Bartknecht, W.: Explosionen, 2. Aufl., Springer, Berlin 1980

Fordham, S.: High Explosives and Propellants, 2. Aufl., Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York 1980

Biasutti, G. S.: Histoire des Accidents dans l’Industrie des Explosifs, Editor: Mario Biazzi, Vevey 1978, engl. Ausgabe 1985

Lingens, P., Prior, J. und Brachert, H.: Sprengstoffe, in: Ullmanns Enzyklopädie der technischen Chemie, 4. Aufl., VCH-Verlagsges., Weinheim 1982, Bd. 21, S. 637– 697

Quinchon, J. et al.: Les Poudres, Propergols et Explosifs, Tome 1: Les Explosifs, Technique et Documentation, Paris 1982

Brunisholz, A., Hildebrand, C. und Leutwyler, H.: Pulver, Bomben und Granaten. Die Pulvermacher einst und jetzt. Lang Druck AG, Liebefeld, Bern, 1983

Lafferenz, R. und Lingens, P.: Explosivstoffe, in: Winnacker-Küchler, Chemische Technologie, Hanser, München 1986, 4. Aufl., Bd. 7 Meyer, R.: Explosives, 3 rd Edition, VCH-Verlagsges., Weinheim, New York 1987

Baily, A. und Murray, S. G.: Explosives, Propellants & Pyrotechnics, Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York 1988

Ganzer, U.: Gasdynamik, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1988

Olah, G. A.; Malhotra, R. und Narang, S. C.: Nitration, Methods and Mechanisms, VCH-Verlagsges., Weinheim 1989

Nitro Compounds, Recent Advances in Synthesis and Chemistry, Hrsg. Feuer, H. und Nielsen, A. T., VCH-Verlagsges., Weinheim 1990 Chemistry of Energetic Materials, Hrsg. Olah, G. A. und Squire, D. R., Academic Press, London 1991

Meyer, R. und Köhler, J.: Explosives, 4. Edition, VCH-Verlagsges., Weinheim, New York 1993

Structure and Properties of Energetic Materials, Editor: Liebenberg, D. H., Armstrom, R. W. und Gilman, J. J., Materials Research Society (MRS), Pittsburgh, USA, 1993 (Symposium Series Vol. 293)

Köhler, J. und Meyer, R.: Explosivstoffe, 8. überarbeitete Auflage, VCHVerlagsges. mbH, Weinheim, 1995

Hazardous Materials Handbook, Editor: Pohanish, R. B. und Greene, S. A., Chapman & Hall, London, UK, 1996

Nitration – Recent Laboratory and Industrial Developments, Hrsg.:

Albright, F. L., Carr, R. V. C., Schmitt, R. J., American Chemical Society (ACS), Washington, DC, USA, 1996 (ACS Symposium Series Vol. 608)

SIPRI Yearbook 1997 – Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1997

Akhavan, J., The Chemistry of Explosives, Royal Soc Chem, Cambridge, UK, 1998

Köhler, J. und Meyer, R.: Explosivstoffe, 9. überarbeitete Auflage, Wiley-VCH Verlagsges. mbH, Weinheim, 1998

2. Applicaton Technique:

Peithner-Jenne: Handbuch des Sprengwesens, ÖGB, Wien 1951 Lathan, W.: Bohrund Schießarbeiten, VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1960

Fraenkel, H.: Handbuch für Sprengarbeiten, Atlas Diesel AB, Stockholm 1953 –1963

Langefors, U. und Kihlström, B.: The Modern Technique of Rock Blasting, Almquist & Wiksell, Stockholm 1963

Biermann, G.: Neuzeitliche Sprengtechnik, Bauverl. Wiesbaden, Berlin 1966

Cole, R. H.: Underwater Explosions, Dover Publ., New York 1965 Wahle M. und Begrich, K.: Der Sprengmeister, Heymanns, Köln 1969 Holluba, H.: Sprengtechnik, 3. Aufl., Österreichischer Gewerbeverlag, Wien 1985

Saint-Arroman, Ch.: Pratique des Explosifs, Eyrolles, Paris 1977 Thum, W. und Hattwer, A.: Sprengtechnik im Steinbruch und Baubetrieb, Bauverlag GmbH, Wiesbaden und Berlin 1978

Handbuch der Sprengtechnik, Editor: Heinze, H., 2nd Edition, VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1980

Blasters Handbook, Du Pont de Nemours, Wilmington 1980; laufende Neuauflagen

Weichelt, F.: Handbuch der Sprengtechnik, 6. Aufl., VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1980

Bodurtha, F. T.: Industrial Explosion, Prevention and Protection, McGraw-Hill, New York 1980

Manual Bickford, Etbls. Davey Bickford, Rouen

Blasting Practice, ICI, Nobel Division, Stevenston, England

Gustafson, R.: Swedish Blasting Technique, SPI, Gothenburg, Schweden 1981

Waffentechnisches Taschenbuch, 6. Aufl., Hrsg. Rheinmetall GmbH, Düsseldorf 1983

Wild, H. W.: Sprengtechnik im Berg-, Tunnelund Stollenbau, 3. Edition, Verlag Glückauf, Essen 1984

Sprengtechnik. Begriffe, Einheiten, Formelzeichen, DIN 20 163, Beuth-Vertrieb GmbH, Köln und Berlin 1985

Shock Waves for Industrial Applications, Editor: Murr, L.E., Noyes Publikations, Park Ridge, New York 1989

Sprengtechnik, Anwendungsgebiete und Verfahren, Editor: H. Heinze,

2.Aufl., Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, Stuttgart 1993

Jahrbuch der Wehrtechnik, 1 – 21, Bernard & Graefe Verlag, Koblenz 1966 –1992

Cooper, P. W.: Explosives Engineering, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim, New York, 1996

Introduction to the Technology of Explosives, Editors: Cooper, P. W., Kurowski, S. R., VCH, Weinheim, Germany, 1996

Explosive Effects and Applications, Editors: Zukas, J.; Walters, W.P., Springer, New York, 1998

3.Monographs:

Naoum, Ph.: Nitroglycerin und Nitroglycerinsprengstoffe, Springer, Berlin 1924

Fabel, K.: Nitrocellulose, Enke, Stuttgart 1950

Miles, F. D.: Cellulose Nitrate, Oliver & Boyd, London 1955

Kraus, A.: Handbuch der Nitrocellulose-Lacke, 3 Bde., Pansegrau, Berlin 1955 –1961

Nauckhoff, S. und Bergström, O.: Nitroglycerin och Dynamit, Nitroglycerin A. B. Gyttorp 1959

Schumacher, J. C.: Perchlorates, their Properties, Manufacture and Use, Reinhold, New York 1960

Feuer, H.: The Chemistry of Nitro and Nitroso Groups, Interscience Publ., New York 1969

Lindemann, E.: Nitrocellulose, in: Ullmanns Enzyklopädie der technischen Chemie, 3. Edition, Urban & Schwarzenberg, München und Berlin 1960, Bd. 12, S. 789 – 797

Fair, H. D. und Walker, R. F.: Energetic Materials, 2 Bde. (over azides), Plenum Press, New York und London 1977

Brachert, H.: Nitrocellulose, in: Ullmanns Enzyklopädie der technischen Chemie, Verlag Chemie, Weinheim 1979, 4. Aufl., Bd. 17, S. 343 – 354

Cross, J. und Farrer, D.: Dust Explosions, Plenum Press, New York 1982

Field, P.: Dust Explosions, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1982

Biasutti, G. S.: History of Accidents in the Explosives Industry, Eigenverlag, Vevey, Schweiz 1985

Bartknecht, W.: Staubexplosionen, Springer, Berlin 1987; engl. Translation: Dust Explosions, 1989

Quinchon, J. und Tranchant, J.: Nitrocelluloses, the Materials and their Applications in Propellants, Explosives and other Industries, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester 1989

Toxicity and Metabolism of Explosives, Editor: Yinon, J., CRC Press c/o Wolfe Publishing Ltd., London 1990

Structure and Properties of Energetic Materials, Hrsg.: Liebenberg, D. H., Armstrong, R. W., Gilman, J. J., Materials Research Society (MRS), Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 1993 (Symposium Series Vol. 293)

Handbook of Harzardous Materials, Hrsg.: Corn, M., Academic Press Inc., New York, London, 1993

Nitro Carbons, Editor: Nielsen, A. T., VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim, 1995

Liquid Rocket Engine Combustion Instability, Editor: Yang, V. und Anderson, W. E., Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 169, AIAA, Washington, DC, USA, 1995

Introduction in the Technology of Explosives, Hrsg.: Cooper, P. W. und

Kurowski, S. R., VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim, 1996 Marinkas, P. L.: Organic Energetic Compounds, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, USA, 1996

Chemical Weapons Destruction and Explosive Waste/Unexploded Ordnance Remediation, Editor: Noyes, R., Noyes, Park Ridge, NJ, 1996

Yinon, J.: Forensic and Environmental Detection of Explosives, Wiley, New York, 1999

4. Propellants

Brunswig, H.: Das rauchlose Pulver, W. de Gruyter, Berlin und Leipzig 1926

Muraour, J.: Poudres et Explosifs, Vendome 1947 Zähringer, A. J.: Solid Propellant Rockets, Wyandotte 1958

Taylor, J.: Solid Propellants and Exothermic Compositions, George Newnes, London 1959

Kit, B. und Evered, D. S.: Rocket Propellant Handbook, Macmillan, New York 1960

Penner, S. S. und Ducarme, J.: The Chemistry of Propellants and Combustion, Pergamon Press, London 1960

Summerfield, M.: Solid Propellant Rocket Research, Academic Press, London 1960

Wiech, R. E. und Strauss, R. F.: Fundamentals of Rocket Propulsion, Reinhold, New York 1960