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16) Стилiична диференцiацiя англ.мови

1. The word-stock of any language may be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. Then the word-stock of the English language may be divided into three main layers (strata):- the literary layer (stratum); the neutral layer and the colloquial layer.

The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups. Each subgroup has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property which unites the different groups within the layer is called its aspect. The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1. common literary; 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words. 

The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:1.common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4.professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages. The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term Standard English Vocabulary. Other groups in the literary and colloquial layers are called  special literary (bookish) vocabulary and  special (non-standard) colloquial vocabulary.

Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings. Common standard literary words. Common standard literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. They are used informal communication. Literary words are mainly observed in the written form. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word, because literary words are used to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages, while colloquial words are employed in non-official everyday communication. 

17) 1. Основні риси функціональних стилів.

According to I.R. Galperin, a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of the language. If neutral style serves any situation of communication colloquial style serves situations of spontaneous everyday communication (casual, non-formal). Bookish style corresponds to public speech (non-casual, formal). In the English literary standard we distinguish the following major functional styles (hence FS): 1) The language of belles-Letters.

2) The language of publicist literature.

3) The language of newspapers.

4) The language of scientific prose.

5) The language of official documents.

• According to I.R. Galperin, belles-lettres style is a generic term for three substyles: the language of poetry; emotive prose (the language of fiction); the language of the drama. Each of these substyles has certain common features, and each of them enjoys some individuality.

The general aim of publicist style is to exert constant and deep influence оn public opinion, to convince the reader оr the listener that the interpretation given bу the writer оr the speaker is the only correct one and to force him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essay оr article not merely through logical argumentation but through emotional appeal as well.

The main aim of the functional style of scientific prose is to prove а hypothesis, to create new concepts and to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc.

The style of official documents is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants:

1. the language of business documents;

2. the language of legal documents; 3) the language of diplomacy; 4) the language of military documents.

The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties and to reach agreement between two contracting parties. The most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. The most striking feature is a special system of cliches, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can be easily recognized.

18) 1.Головнi композицiйнi форми худ.твору

The impact of a literary work, as it has already been stated, depends on all its elements. Among them plot and plot structure play an important role. The plot is a series of interlinked events in which the characters of the story participate. The events are arranged in a definite sequence to catch and hold the reader's interest. The writer arranges the events, ordering them as he sees fit. Most stories and novels have plots. But there are some which have no plots. To these belong stories and poems describing nature.

The plot of any story always involves character and conflict. They imply each other. Conflict in fiction is the opposition (or struggle) between forces or characters. Conflicts are classified into external and internal conflicts. Different types of external conflicts are usually termed in the following way: Man against man, when the plot is based on the opposition between two or more people, as in The Roads We Take by O'Henry. Man against nature (the sea, the desert, the frozen North or wild beasts). The conflict in The Old Man and the Sea by F. Hemingway) 3. Man against society or man against the established order in the society, when the individual fights his social environment openly, or when there is a conflict between the individual and the established order: a conflict with poverty, racial hostility, injustice, exploitation, inequality. 4. The conflict between one set of values against another set of values. These sets of values may be supported by two groups or two worlds in opposition. For example, the conflict in The Fall of Edward Barnard by S. Maugham is between ambition and prosperity, on the one hand, and truth, beauty and goodness, on the other. Internal conflicts, often termed as "man against himself", take place within one character.

The events of the plot are generally localized, i. e. they are set in a particular place and lime. The place and time of the actions of a story (or novel) form the setting.

16) 2.Ваше ставлення до до процесу полiтичної експанацiї США

A participatory public has been a defining feature of American politics and historically strength of the political system. The political culture encouraged people to participate: Americans were active in voluntary associations, engaged in political discussion and involved in political affairs. I agree that the American public has undergone profound changes in the past half-century, and this has altered participation patterns and citizens’ relationship with government. However, the prior research has misdiagnosed the process by focusing on only a portion of the political activity, and by mistaking the sources of these changes.

Throughout the first half of the 1800s or 19th century there were many factors influencing United States expansion. From the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 to the Gadsden Purchase in 1853 the United States had tripled in size since its original thirteen colonies and only paid forty-five million dollars in doing so. The idea of Manifest Destiny spread quickly throughout the country and soon thousands were moving westward in search of a new way of life. The idea of Manifest Destiny was for the U.S. to occupy the entire continent. The only problem was that the land it was expanding on to didn’t belong to the U.S. One such factor that influenced the expansion of the U.S. was the occupation of nearby territories by foreign countries. Another huge factor that played a role in expansion was that of available resources. As the people began to move westward they would settle in areas with vast amounts of natural resources such as lakes or streams, where they could gather food. Lakes were very important to travel because they provided drinking water for the people and attracted wild animals to the area, which could be hunted for food. Also if an area were to dry or rocky it wouldn’t be settled. People looked for the best places to live, places they could profit from the most. 

I think that the expansion of political rights led to new categories of social rights, such as social services, providing for those in need and taking heed of the general welfare of others. Citizenship thus may include an ethical and moral responsibility to others in the polity and beyond.

17) 2. Problems with the operation of the courts and the judicial system are one of the biggest problems facing Ukraine today.

The judicial system has been criticised for its inefficiency (it can takes ages for courts to issue rulings), its lack of transparency (including allegations of corruption) and its lack of credibility (many court decisions are never enforced). The fact that the courts are not perceived as independent or unbiased is a deterrent to long-term political stability, inward investment and the development of the rule of law. So I’m pleased to have an opportunity to meet Oleksandr Lavrynovych, the Ukrainian Minister of Justice, and discuss with him the Ukrainian Government’s plans for judicial reform. I don’t comment on the substance of the proposed reforms, which are the subject of active political debate, but I do emphasise the importance which we attach to improving the system, including for Ukraine’s membership of the EU.

When I meet Mr Lavrynovych I also applaud the fact that the government has already been consulting the Venice Commision, the Council of Europe’s advisory body on legal and constitutional matters, on the proposed changes. It is important that this dialogue continues. The Venice Commission is justifiably regarded as an unrivalled and impartial source of knowledge and advice. It is therefore essential that the government makes full use of its expertise to help improve the functioning of Ukraine’s judicial system. Without such improvement, there is a risk that the judicial system will continue to act as a brake on Ukraine’s economic and political development.

18) 2. Чи відповідає соц. статус кваліфікаційним умовам вчителя

Education is one of the most important parts of our life. The kind of education we all receives largely depends upon the kind of teacher we have in the school. A positive or negative approach could change the entire life of a child. A future of a child is depending on the teachers. The society that we live in have all types of teachers. Furthermore, today's students will be the responsible citizens of tomorrow; therefore all teachers should try to be a "good qualified teacher."

A good qualified teacher must have knowledge of his/her subject matter. Teacher should know how to explain the content in easier way that he is teaching. In addition, a good qualified teacher should be able to understand that it is important to teach the content in simple steps so all the students in the class can understand. Additionally, a teacher requires the characteristic of being patient. The students that are to be taught have different levels of knowledge and if a teacher is not patient, a lot of misunderstandings may arise, thus portraying the teacher’s flaws

Teaching does not seem like a desirable profession in Ukraine due to the low salaries and strenuous workload. After spending, a lot of time and efforts to earn all needed qualifications students want their degree to work for them. They do not want to work a high hour, low paying job when they know they could be out making good money at an entry-level computer job.

Until teacher salaries are increased, things are only going to get worse. With the current teacher shortage, large class sizes are just going to get larger. The problem does not sound serious right now, but what will happen when those students are doctors, teachers, or presidents years down the road? This serious problem could have a very negative impact on our nation's future.

25. 1)Міжкультурна комунікація як наука. Осн цілі, завдання, методи, засади дослідження

С начала своего возникновения межкультурная коммуникация формировалась как межпредметная дисциплина.

Из всех наук о культуре наибольший объем теоретических и методологических знаний и практического опыта в области исследований МКК накоплен фольклористикой и этнологией. Поэтому сложились два направления исследований межкультурной коммуникации. Первое из них, основывающееся на фольклористике, носит описательный характер. Его задачами являются выявление, описание и интерпретация повседневного поведения людей с целью объяснения глубинных причин и детерминирующих факторов их культуры.

Второе направление, имеющее культурно-антропологический характер, предметом своих исследований имеет различные виды культурной деятельности социальных групп и общностей, их нормы, правила и ценности. основными целями исследований в области МКК являются:

• систематическое изложение основных проблем и тем межкультурной коммуникации, овладение основными понятиями и терминологией; • развитие культурной восприимчивости, способности к правильной интерпретации конкретных проявлений коммуникативного поведения в различных культурах;

• формирование практических навыков и умений в общении с представителями других культур.

Выделяются три типа межкультурной коммуникации – вербальный, невербальный и паравербальный. Под вербальной коммуникацией понимается языковое общение, выражающееся в обмене мыслями, информацией, эмоциональными переживаниями собеседников.

Невербальная коммуникация – это обмен и интерпретация людьми невербальных сообщений, т.е. сообщений, закодированных и передаваемых особым образом посредством выразительных движений тела, звукового оформления речи, использования материальных предметов, имеющих символическое значение. паравербальная коммуникация. Смысл высказывания может изменяться в зависимости от того, какая интонация, ритм, тембр.

25) 2. Дайте поради щодо уникнення стресових ситуацій в професійній сфері

Stress is evident everywhere in our fast-paced world. It’s a mental, emotional, or physical strain caused by anxiety or overwork. We all feel stress and often suffer the results of it in some way or other.

Most of the stress we experience can be broken down into three categories. Stressful events can vary greatly in severity, but they activate a series of common biological and behavioral responses that help us cope with the situation. Workplace challenges can have a particularly profound impact on wellbeing.

The realization that you are in control of your stress is the foundation of stress management.So, it is very important to remember some rules to avoid stressful situation. Whether in your personal or professional life, learn your limits and set boundaries. Know when to say, “No!” Don’t take on more than you can reasonably handle. Avoid people who stress you out. If someone is a constant source of stress and you can’t turn the relationship around, limit the amount of time you spend with that person, or end the relationship entirely. Avoid heated topics. You know the topics that cause your blood pressure to rise, so learn to avoid them.

When something or someone is upsetting you, learn to communicate your concerns in an open and respectful manner. Even if it’s just sharing what you are going through with a friend, you will likely feel better. It is well documented that physical activity plays a key role in reducing the effects of stress on the body. Make time for at least 30 minutes of exercise, three times per week. A brisk walk can do wonders to reduce stress.

As you go about each day, be aware of your stress levels and their sources. If watching the news impacts your stress levels, then stop watching it. If some of your choices are creating stressful situations, then learn from them and avoid them in the future.

28) 1. роль мови у міжкультурній комунікації

Роль языка в межкультурном общении

 Как правило, большое число проблем возникает при переводе информации с одного языка на другой. Очевидно, что абсолютно точный перевод невозможен из-за разных картин мира, создаваемых разными языками. Наиболее частым случаем такого языкового несоответствия является отсутствие точного эквивалента для выражения того или иного понятия, и даже отсутствие самого понятия. Это связано с тем, что понятия или предметы, обозначаемые такими словами, являются уникальными для данной культуры, а в других культурах отсутствуют и, следовательно, там нет соответствующих слов для их выражения.

Проблема в том, что значение слова не исчерпывается одним лишь лексическим понятием (денотацией слова), а в значительной степени зависит от его лексико-фразеологической сочетаемости и коннотации. Полное совпадение всех названных аспектов слова практически невозможно. Именно поэтому невозможно переводить слова только с помощью словаря, который дает длинный список возможных значений этого слова. Изучая язык, нужно заучивать слова не в отдельности, по их значениям, а в естественных, наиболее устойчивых сочетаниях, присущих данному языку.

Помимо проблем с лексико-фразеологической сочетаемостью слов существует конфликт между культурными представлениями разных народов о тех предметах и явлениях реальности, которые обозначены эквивалентными словами этих языков. Эти культурные представления обычно определяют появление различных стилистических коннотаций у слов разных языков.

Примером может служить словосочетание «зеленые глаза», которое по-русски звучит весьма поэтично, наводит на мысли о колдовских глазах. Но то же самое словосочетание по-английски (green eyes) напоминает о зависти и ревности, которые были названы Шекспиром в его трагедии «Отелло» «зеленоглазым чудовищем».

Слово как единица языка соотносится с предметом или явлением реального мира. Таким образом, при выборе языка общения необходимо помнить как о лексико-фразеологической сочетаемости слов, так и об их различной коннотации, существующей в разных языках.

28).2 WHAT YOUNG PEOPLE DO NOWADAYS ON THEIR FREE TIME?

Nowadays, and despite the enormous volume of exams and schoolwork young teenagers have, they still have some free time to spend with their friends, do new activities, and relax before classes start again. They have different possibilities depending on where they live, their economic situation and their age. But all students and young people have many options to spend their valuable free time, although sometimes they don’t know what to do and they stay at home having a nap or totally bored. Sport activities are the first option for most students. Joining to a football, basketball, hockey, handball or volleyball team are interesting ways of doing exercise and having a good time. Teenagers can also play tennis, go to the swimming pool, or work out at a gym. The good side of sport activities is that they help you to stay fit and healthy. Most sports are also funny, like team sports. You can practice sport alone or with your friends, and you can also meet new interesting people.

Another good option to spend your free time is going to the park. There are lots of parks in all cities, and you can go alone, with your family or with your friends. In a park, you can read a book or have a nap. You can also kick a football around. And, if you want, you can take a picnic basket and a picnic rug and have a picnic.

Many young people prefer going out with their friends to stay at home all day. If they decide to go out, there are many things they can do. They can go for a walk, play any sport or go shopping. They can go out to a bar, or go out for a coffee, if they want to sit and talk. They can play billiards, bowling, chess, cards, too .They can have dinner at a restaurant, have a barbecue, go to the swimming pool, or any other activity that they all enjoy. Finally, at night they can go to a disco, to a party or to a concert. As we can see, there are thousands of different activities to choose when young people have some free

26.1)Когнiтологiя як сучасна наука. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence.  It typically assumes that thinking is a material computational process, and includes fields such as computer science, educational and cognitive development, linguistics, neuroscience, neurobiology, philosophy, psychology, and certain areas of mathematics and evolutionary biology.  Cognitive science is not a sum of each discipline's contribution, but an integrated approach to specific questions about the mind.

Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers). Cognitive science consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.^[1] It spans many levels of analysis, from low-level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. 

Cognitive science has arguably been the most important development in the study of human thinking in the past twenty years; its influence can be seen across a wide variety of disciplines, from logic to communication disorders.  

26 .2)Чи iснує здорова їжа у країнах....

) Nowadays a problem of genetically modified food is widespread all over the world. People worry about their health and the health of descendants, because GM is considered to be very harmful. Along with disadvantages there are advantages, too.

On the one hand, genetically modified food can help humanity to survive .Scientists predict population of our planet to reach 11 billion people and to feed everyone will be critical problem number 1. Firstly, all of sorts of GM plants are stable against illnesses and mean weather. Secondly, they ripenfast and keep longer than usual plants. It can be quite first-rate, because basically soils aren`t so good and the climate is unpredictable. For instance, thus a large number of people who live in Africa will be able to feed their children.

On the other hand, GM food can destroy all of our population. To begin with, genetically modified food brings about allergic illnesses. A lot of people have already had the disturbed metabolism. Moreover, more than half of the people suppose GM food is very harmful and nasty. Because of these many of them are suffering from adiposity. They eat only GM food, as their stomach is used to eat it.

I find it necessary to add that you can find genetically modified food in our usual food, because even in our region of vast farmlands we lack organic food.

As for me, I think that fast food is very convenient. Now I will try to explain my point of view.

First of all, if you are hungry and busy, it is better to eat fast food than nothing. Secondly, to eat fast food is quicker. It goes without saying, that to have more free time is very important for businessmen. Finally, it is cheaper to eat fast food, which is very important for teens who usually do not have much pocket money.

Now let me prove my point of view. Firstly, fast food hasn`t got any vitamins which are necessary for health. Secondly, a lot of people like to eat hamburgers and drink coca cola. But what is tasty is not always healthy. Fast food makes you fat. Thirdly, fast food destroys people`s health, and it influences psychology. That’s why many people become very nervous.

At the end of my composition, I want to say that I prefer to eat fruit and vegetables rather than fast food because I think that it helps me to save my health. Of course, I can’t but agree that the problem needs further discussion. There are many people, there are many opinions.

29). 1.Дискурсологія

1)Дискурсологія - багатоструктурна і багатокомпонентна область наукового знання, яка грунтується на новій дослідницької парадигмі, яка утвердилася в гуманітарних науках кінця 20 - початку 21 століття. Дискурсивний підхід до категоризації мовної картини світу забезпечує реальну міждисциплінарність - включення в інтерактивний простір культурної, історичної та соціальної інформації. У сучасній науці склалося і продовжує складатися уявлення про дискурс як текст, занурений в соціокультурну ситуацію; комунікативну подію; «висловлювану» ситуацію, в якій суб'єкти мови спільними зусиллями розробляють структуру дискурсу кожен даний момент; сукупність ситуативно, контекстуально обумовлених усних та письмових маніфестацій мови , що реалізуються в тексті; тактиках і стратегіях розгортання тексту; комунікативно-прагматичну поведінку інтерактивного характеру. Названі ознаки дискурсу визначили основні напрямки його дослідження: мова і мислення, мова і культура, мова і суспільство. Через дискурс лінгвістика наблизилася до опису природного перебування людини в мові як в «будинку буття» і до аналізу різноманітних дискурсивних практик, що відображають комунікативні потреби пострадянського суспільства. Термін «дискурс» використовується у різних значеннях, що дає змогу вченим стверджувати про «розмитість» його поняттєвих меж. Зокрема, поняття дискурсу асоціюється з усіма виявами комунікації в суспільстві (комунікативний дискурс, мовний, вербальний, невербальний, сучасні дискурсивні практики, дискурс мовчання), комунікацією у межах окремих каналів (візуальний, слуховий, тактильний), виявом правил спілкування, способів викладу та втілення прагматичної мети мовців (етикетний, лайливий, дидактичний). Поняття дискурсу часто асоціюється з типами та формами мовлення, принципами побудови повідомлення, його риторикою (монологічний, діалогічний, наративний, риторичний, іронічний тощо), характеристиками мовлення окремої людини і груп людей (особистісний, неповторний, колективістський, авторитарний).

Роль дискурсів в організації засобів мовного коду є значною. Російський мовознавець М. Макаров порівняв значення поняття «дискурс» у сучасній комунікативній і когнітивній лінгвістиці зі значенням грошової одиниці «євро» в об'єднаній Європі.

Отже, дискурс можна вважати одночасно живим процесом спілкування і найзагальнішою категорією міжособистісної інтеракції

29).2 Сучаснi сценаристи та режисери..

The movies are truly an art of our time. It is a greatest aesthetic and educational force in the world today. Cinema plays an important role in the life of any society. And Ukraine is not an exception.

In the history of humanity there have always been people whose actions and ideas produced a great impact on the lives of other people. They have made a great contribution to the science, culture, social life of this country. That’s why they are called outstanding. There are a lot of outstanding people famous for their contribution to our science and art. But we should not forget about today's famous people.

For the last few years the new generation of cinematographers came to the Ukrainian cinema. In 2001 the first-time director Taras Tomenko won in competition "Panorama" of Berlin festival. In 2003, already in the basic competition the film of Ukrainian animator Stepan Koval "There was tram # 9" received the Silver bear. In 2003 the film "Mamai" of Oles Sanin for the first time represented Ukraine on the award "Oscar". In 2005 the film "Travellers" of young Ukrainian director Igor Strembitsky received the Gold palm- branch for a short-lenght film. After 2004 some films about Orange revolution were made. That period was reflected in several films, in particular: "The Orange sky" (2006, director Alexander Kirienko), "We Will break!" (2006, director Ivan Kravchishin), "Orangelove" (2006, Alan Badoev). To my mind cinematography is a mirror which reflects our life, our feelings, our thoughts and points of view. Movies reveal our problems. In a word, they are the creation of people’s vision of life. I must say that cinematography is a great art. It is a representative of the culture of different countries on the international level. We can get acquainted with all the traditions of this or that country, its people’s ways of life by means of cinema. Around the world, at any instant, millions of people are watching movies. 

27)1. Мова та культура.

Соціальна взаємодія реалізується через різні форми соціальної комунікації — мовної комунікації у світі повсякденності. Мова являє собою знакову систему, що є засобом спілкування і мислення. Мова є засобом пізнання світу, збереження і передачі інформації. Тому знання мов і їхнє практичне використання говорить про культуру особистості. Розвиненість національної мови, тобто її багатомірність, словниковий склад, внутрішня розчленованість на одиниці різних рівнів свідчать про рівень національної культури. Функціонально вона забезпечує вираження певних почуттів, настроїв, емоцій. Ми розглядаємо мову, насамперед, як ту частину культурного менталітету, що складає сферу духу, цінностей і значень. Особистістю стають у процесі праці і спілкування. особистість у спілкуванні наділена комунікативними, соціальними і психологічними ролями, сукупність яких створює варіанти мовної поведінки, що втілюються в нескінченній розмаїтості висловлень і текстів». При спілкуванні між представниками різних культур цих правил не завжди дотримуються, особливо якщо вони різні. Наприклад, у різних культурах прийнято додержуватися різних дистанцій між співрозмовниками. Мінімальна дистанція у арабів і латиноамериканців, максимальна — у північноамериканців. Тому для латиноамериканця спілкування на дистанції, до якої звиклії їхні північні сусіди, здається надто холодним і надто офіційним, а для північно-американця зона спілкування латиноамериканців здаватиметься надто нав’язливою, агресивною і небезпечною. Офіційна зона спілкування в українців та росіян визначається звичайно довжиною двох рук, простягнених для рукостискання, а зона дружня — довжиною двох зігнутих у лікті рук. Розрізняються два рівні вербального спілкування — інтимний і офіційний. Деякі люди дозволяють іншим довідатися про себе дуже багато чого — вони діляться своїм почуттями і думками, тоді як інші ховають свій внутрішній світ. Вони можуть розмовляти цілком відверто лише на окремі теми, найбільш безпечні для себе, але будуть більш обережними, коли розмова переходить у небезпечну Для них зону.

27)2. Чи варто молодi читати класичну лiт.

1.When reading the classics you’ll come across many words that are no longer commonly used. Why learn words most people don’t use? To set yourself apart. Having a bigger vocabulary is like having a tool box with more tools. A larger arsenal of words enables you to express yourself more eloquently. You’ll be able to communicate with precision and create a perception of higher intelligence that will give you an advantage in work and social situations.

2. Improved Writing Ability Reading the classics is the easiest way to improve your writing. While reading you unconsciously absorb the grammar and style of the author. Why not learn from the best? Great authors have a tendency to take over your mind. After reading, I’ve observed that my thoughts begin to mirror the writer’s style. This influence carries over to writing, helping form clear, rhythmic sentences.

3. Improved Speaking Ability Becoming a better speaker accompanies becoming a better writer because both are caused by becoming a better thinker. Studying works of genius will teach you to express yourself with clarity and style. By improving your command of the English language, you’ll become more persuasive, sound more intelligent, and enjoy an advantage over less articulate people.

4. Educational EntertainmentReading great books is fun. The key is getting past the initial vocabulary barrier. It’s actually less difficult than you think. Even challenging authors use a limited vocabulary. After the initial learning curve, you’ll find the classics as readable as modern books and infinitely more stimulating. Classics have endured because of entertainment value. There’s a reason filmmakers keep remaking old books — they have the best content.

30) 1. Семіотичне визначення поняття «текст». Текст і знак. Текст і проблема «адресат-адресант».

Фундаментальним поняттям сучасної семіотики є текст. Текст - це носій цілісного значення та цілісної функції. У цьому значенні текст може розглядатись, як першоелемент або базисна одиниця культури. Співвіднесеність тексту з цілим культури і її системою кодів проявляється у тому, що на різних рівнях одне й те саме повідомлення може бути представлене як текст, частина тексту або сукупність тексту.

Поняття «текст» вживається у специфічно-семіотичному значенні і з іншої сторони застосовується не тільки щодо повідомлень на природній мові, але й до будь-якого носія цілісного, тобто обряду або витвору мистецтва, музики. З іншої сторони, не всяке повідомлення на природній мові являє собою текст з точки зору культури.

У загальній моделі культури суттєвим є підхід для якого поняття «текст» виступає не як другорядне від ланцюжка знаків, а в якості первинного знаку. Текст цього типу не розпадається на знаки. Він представляє собою ціле і ділиться не на окремі знаки, а на диференційні ознаки. Таким чином, можна виявити схожість між первинністю текстув системах масової комунікації, як кіно та телебачення.

У процесі культурної комунікації, особливе значення має парадигма «граматики мовця» та «грам. слухача». Окремі тексти можуть створюватись з орієнтацією на позицію слухача. Прикладом культури орієнтованої на слухача буде та, в якій аксіологічна ієрархія текстів розташовується так , що поняття «найбільш цінний» і «зрозумілий» співпадають. Орієнтація культури на «мовця» або на «слухача» будуть проявлятись у тому що у 1 випадку, аудиторія моделює себе по образу творця тексту(Читач прагне наблизитись до ідеалу художника). У 2 випадку, відправник будує себе по образу аудиторії(автор бажає наблизитись до ідеалу читача).

Оскільки у канал комунікації між відправником та адресатом у культурах, які володіють засобами зовнішньої фіксації повідомлень вбудована пам'ять, розрізняємо потенційний адресат та актуальний адресант.

30) 2. Екранізація театральних постанов: за і проти

Theatre and film’s proximity, sometimes overlooked in the constant effort made to distinguish them, is what makes the conditions of their comparison and combination so special: Both are performance arts that ordinarily involve an audience gathering at a prescribed time in a theatre to witness a scheduled event (like dance and live music and unlike painting, sculpture and novels). Both, traditionally at least, are narrative (they tell stories) and mimetic (they represent life).

Visiting a theatre, you occupy a fixed seat, and use your, (perhaps limited) vision and knowledge of the opera. The TV director has multi-cameras with multi-lenses, complete mastery of the score, and the skill to direct your eyes to best advantage.

On the stage of theatre you can see such plays as “Meetings in Vienna”, “Silva”, “The Princess of Circus” and others.It seems that the theatrical play gives the undemonstrative people a safe opportunity to look behind the mask of accepted social behavior. Many of the most well-known television actors, though they might make most of their money on the screen, continue to see themselves as first and foremost theatre actors.

But we are to admit that theatre is not so popular now as it used to be. There are many people who prefer to seat comfortably in front of the TV and enjoy themselves without leaving their homes.

Usually we see films either in the cinema or on TV. As for me, from time to time I go to the cinema. My favorite film is “Romeo and Juliet”. The Italian director Franco Zeffirelli, produced a masterpiece in this adaptation. The costumes are brilliant, the actors are wonderful, the music by is perfect, and the lines are delivered beautifully. The movie starred Leonard Whiting (a British actor, who played Romeo) and Olivia Hussey (Juliet). They were young when they filmed the Classic, 17 and 15 years, respectably. This movie is one of the most realistic interpretations of William Shakespeare's Tragedy.