№1 Phonetics as a branch of Linguistics. The links of phonetics with other sciences.

I. Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology, grammar & stylistics. It studies the sound matter, its aspects & functions. 1) Phon. is closely connected with Grammar by means of the system of rules of reading. It helps to pronounce correctly the plural forms of nouns, Past Indef. & Past. Partic. of English regular verbs. (/lemp-lemps/; neim-neinz/; /pleis-pleisiz/); (/ask-a:skt/;/kli:n-kli:nd/;/wont-wontid/. Another important phonetic phenomenon is the sound interchanging. It’s another manifestation of connection of Phon. with Gr. It can be observed in the category of number. The interchanging of /fv/; /sz/; /  /. It helps to differentiate singular & plural forms of nouns (shelf-shelves; house-houses). Vowel interchanging is connected with the tense forms of the irregular verbs. (come-came; give-gave). Vowel interchanging can also help to distinguish between: nouns & verbs (to bath-bathe / /); adjectives & nouns (hot-heat / /); verbs & adjectives (to moderate–moderate / /); nouns & nouns (shade -shadow / /). Phon. is also connected with Cr. through the intonation. Sometimes the intonation can serve to single out the logical predicate. (He visited me.) 2) Phon. is connected with Lexicology. It is due to the presence of stress in the right place we can distinguish nouns from verbs. (‘object - to ob`ject; `transfer – to trans`fer). 3) Phon. is connected with Stylistics. First of all through the intonation (speech melody, sentence stress, rhythm, pauses, timber). They serve to express emotions. They help to distinguish different attitudes on the part of the speaker & the author. Very often the writer helps the reader to interpret his ideas through the specific words & remarks. (He sad angrily. A shot pause.) Phon. is also connected with Styl. trough the repetition of words, phrases & sounds. The repetition of identical or similar sounds is called alliteration. It helps to impart a melodic effect to the utterance & to express certain emotions.

№2 Phoneme, its nature, definition. Variants of phonemes.

Phoneme is a unit of phonology. There are different opinions on the nature of the phoneme & its definition. 1. I.A. Baudouin de Courteney - the founder of the phoneme theory, defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound. He originates the so called “mentalist” view of the phoneme. 2. The abstractional conception of the phoneme was originated by F. de Saussure, the famous Swiss linguist, & the Danish linguist L.Hjelmslev. The “abstract” view regards the phoneme independent of the phonetic properties. 3. Trubetskoy, Bloomfield, Jakobson viewed the phoneme as a minimal sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated. They stated that the features of the phoneme involved in the differentiation of words are called distinctive. They can be found in the contrastive sets. 4. The physical level of the phoneme was originated by B. Jones, who defined the phoneme as a “family” of sounds the members which show phonetic similarity & can not occur in the same phonetic context as any other member. 5. L. Shcherba was the first to define the phoneme as a real, independent distinctive unit which manifests itself in the form of allophones -the actually pronounced speech sounds, variants of phonemes. He stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds, that we are aware of (try-took-theater-rhythm-cot.). Allophones are realized in concrete words. Prof. Vassilyev developed Shcherba’s theory & presented a detailed definition of the phoneme in his book “English Phonetics A theoretical Course” where he writes that a phoneme is a dialectical unity of three aspects: 1) material, real & objective because it really exists independently of our will or intention in the material form of speech sounds, allophones; 2) abstractional & generalized it because we may it abstract from concrete realizations for classificatory purposes; 3) functional (constitutive, distinctive, recognitive) because its function is to make one word or its grammatical form distinct from the other, it constitutes words & help to recognize them. Phoneme can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs. This method consists in finding pairs of words, which differ in one phoneme - tan-ban-fan-can. The phonemes of a language follow a system of apposition, in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one position, in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal pair.

№3 Articulatory transition of vowel & consonant phonemes. Assimilation. Accommodation. Elision.

Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighboring consonant as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partly similar to the adjoining sound. Acc. to the direction assimilation can be: progressive (the assimilated con-t is influenced by the presiding consonant [buks – dogz]); regressive (the presiding con-t is influenced by the one following it [nju:z –nju:speipe]); double (reciprocal) (two adjacent con-t influence each other [twenti]). Assimilation can be historical & leaving. Elision – is a fall of some sound, the phonetic occurrence when one of the neighboring is not realized in rapid or careless speech in order to keep the rhythm. Elision can be historical ([ofn – oftn]) & contemporary. English spelling is full of “silent” letters (work, write, knife, knee). The most common cases of contemporary elision is: 1) /t, d/ in /ft, st, t, t, vd, zd, d/. (cleft palate [klief p l t]). 2) /pt, kt, bd, gd, t t, d d / (dubbed film [dab film]). 3) /md, nd, d/ (slammed the door [slem do:]). Accommodation is

№4 Intonation. Its components. Stylistic use of intonation.

№5 Syntactical expressive means & stylistic devices.

The special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance are called stylistic devices or expressive means. They serve the purpose of logical & emotional intensification of the utterance. They are distinguished to phonographical, morphological, lexical, syntactical & lexico-syntactical levels. To syntactical EMs & SDs the follow ones refer. 1)Rhetorical question - a peculiar interrogative construction which semantically remains a statement. Repetition - recurrence of the same word, word combination, phrase for two or more times. Acc. to the place which the repeated unit occupies in the sentence (utterance), repetition is classified into several types: 1) anaphora: a..., a..., a.... 2) Epiphora: ...a, ...a, ...a. 3) Framing: a.......a. 4) Catch repetition: ... a, a.... 5) Chain repetition: ...a, a...b, b...c, c..,.6) Ordinary repetition. 7) Successive repetition: ...a, a, a.... The most emphatic type of repetition. Parallel constructions - a purely syntactical type of repetition for here we deal with the repetition of the structure of several successive sentences. Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. The second part of a chiasmus is inversion of the first construction. (Now he understood. He understood many things. Obviously this is an infection. Obviously.) Inversion - a SD in which the direct word order is changed (In God we trust). There is partial & complete inversion. Suspense - a deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence. Detachment - a SD based on singling out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation (intonation). (She was crazy about you. In the beginning.) Ellipsis - deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence. (In manner, close & dry. In voice, husky & low.) One-member sentences - sentences consisting only of a nominal group, which is semantically self-sufficient. Break - reflects the emotional or/& psychological state of the speaker: a sentence may be broken because the speaker's emotions prevent him from finishing it Another cause of the break- is the desire to cut short the information with which the sentence began. Polysyndeton - repeated use of conjunctions. Asyndeton - deliberate omission of conjunctions. Attachment - the second part of the utterance separated from the first one by a full stop though their semantical & grammatical ties remain very strong. ("Give me an example," I said quietly. "Of something that means something. In your opinion.").

№6 Lexical expressive means & stylistic devices.

The special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance are called stylistic devices or expressive means. They serve the purpose of logical & emotional intensification of the utterance. They are distinguished to phonographical, morphological, lexical, syntactical & lexico-syntactical levels. To lexical EMs & SDs the follow ones refer. Metaphor - transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects. If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate & animate objects, we deal with personification. Metaphor, as all other SDs, is fresh, original, genuine., when first used, & trite, hackneyed, stale when often repeated. When the speaker uses a group of metaphors this cluster is called a sustained (prolonged) metaphor. (He smelled the ever-beautiful smell of coffee imprisoned in the can. I am the new year.) Metonymy - transference of names based on the nearness of objects or phenomena. If the transference is based on the relations between a part & a whole we deal with synecdoche. (The skirt will be a mass of wrinkles in the back. He made his way through the perfume & conversation.) Zeugma - a SD based on the polysemantic structure of the word. The word is used once within the same context but is realized in at least two of its meanings simultaneously. (After a while & a cake he crept to the door.) Pun - a SD based on the polysemantic nature of the word. The word is repeated several times within one context each time being realized in one of the meanings. (His sins were scarlet, but his books were read.) Antonomasia - a lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa, i. e. A SD, in which the nominal meaning of a proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical meaning acquires the new - nominal - component. ("He tells each Mary the same stupid things). Another type of antonomasia we meet when a common noun serves as an individualizing name ( Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet . I never met such a Gorgon.) Epithet expresses characteristics of an object, both existing & imaginary. Through long & repeated use epithets become fixed: true love, merry Christmas.There is affective (serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker: nasty, magnificent) & figurative or transferred (is formed of metaphors, metonymies, similes expressed by adjectives: the smiling sun, the sleepless pillow). (Her painful shoes slipped off). Hyperbole - a SD in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration. When it is directed the opposite way, when some feature is intentionally underrated, we deal with understatement (She wore a pink hat, the size of a button.) Oxymoron - a combination of two semantically contradictory notions, that help to emphasize contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described phenomenon as a unity (It was an open secret. The garage was full of nothing.)

7. Phonetic expressive means & stylistic devices.

The special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance are called stylistic devices or expressive means. They serve the purpose of logical & emotional intensification of the utterance. They are distinguished to phonographical, morphological, lexical, syntactical & lexico-syntactical levels. To phonetic EMs & SDs the follow ones refer. Onomatopoeia – sound imitation, the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object or action, such as “mew”, "murmur", "grumble", “bang”. Alliteration - the repetition of consonants, usually at the beginning of words. (шумел камыш) Assonance - the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. (Hаша Таня громко плачет.)The above-mentioned EMs help to achieve the two opposite effects: euphony (a sense of ease, pleasant, comfort in pronouncing & hearing), or cacophony (a sense of stain, unpleasant, discomfort in pronouncing or hearing).(The fair breeze blew. He swallowed the hint with a gulp, a gasp & a grin.) Graphon — the intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word used to reflect its authentic pronunciation or to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing the stressed words. Graphon can give some information about the speaker's origin, social & educational background, physical or emotional condition, physical defects, young age i.e. & conveys the atmosphere of authentic life communication. Types of Graphon: 1) italics; 2) multiplication (Alllll are free); 3) capitalization (HELP): 4) hyphenation (h-e-l-p); 5) grammar (I wanna home) .6) steps (manner of line’s arrangement (Маяковский)) (nairplane- airplane , Best jeans for this Jeaneration).

8. Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary.

The English vocabulary can be classified from a stylistic point of view as a system the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated & yet different aspects of the words may be singled out as independent. Every notional word carries some definite or basic inf-on & additional inf-on. All the words may be divided into neural (the majority of words which have no add. meaning), literary (used in writing, polished, official speech) & colloquial (used in everyday ordinal speech). The common lit., common coll. & neutral words are grouped under the term St&ard Eng. Voc. (kid-child-infant; go on-continue-proceed). Literary words are divided into general lit., which have no limitations in using, & special lit. (high-flown) words which are limited by semantic or stylistic factors. They are: 1) neologisms – new-appeared words which denote new phenomena (computer, armful, ex-champion, mucher, stepmotherl&), 2) archaisms, obsolete words are associated with the printed page. Archaic words may also be used in conversational situations in contrast to archaisms which are already partly or fully out of circulation, rejected by the living language & used in historical novels & in poetry. (Thou & thy, aye (yes) & nay (no)); historisms – words denoting objects & phenomena, which are things of the past & no longer exist.3) barbarisms – borrowed foreign words, that preserved their native spelling & pronunciation (tet-a-tet, se-la-vi); 4) terms denote various scientific objects, processes etc. (milling machine, cranium, bisector ). Special colloquial vocabulary consists of : 1) vulgarisms – the words of strong emotive coloring of coarseness & rudeness (shut up, old man, bastard), may be used in belles-letters style in characters’ speech or in careless speech; 2) dialectical word come from dialects & still retain their dial. character (lass – the girl; pet – darling), 3) slang – new words or current words with a coarse, mocking, cynical coloring whose meaning has been metaphorically shifted? considered as bellow the level of st&ard educated speech. (to kid, a doc, telly, swash(nonsense); 4) jargonisms – social, used by particular social classes (to cook – to investigate), & professional or professionalism (like terms), used by professional groups (the screens – x-ray). The so-called nonce-words can be regarded to both special lit. & coll. voc-ries. They are unique, non-existed words created in some concert situation.