21. Productive ways of word-formation in Modern English. Principal ways of word-derivation.

Affixation. The process of affixation consists of coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. Affixes are classified into productive and non-productive types. By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. For example, the suffix -ish produces a great number of adjectives such as baldish, oldish, youngish, mannish, fattish, longish, etc.

Conversion is a special type of affixless derivation where a newly-formed word acquires a paradigm and syntactic functions different from those of the original word. Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs from the original one, but it can more or less be easily associated with it. e.g. nurse (n.)> to nurse (v.)

Substantivation is the process in which adjectives (or participles) acquire the paradigm and syntactic functions of nouns [A> N]. It is distinguished two main types of substantivation: complete and partial. Completely substantivized adjectives have the full paradigm of a noun (singular and plural case forms, definite and indefinite articles, demonstrative and possessive pronouns). e.g. adj. native (rіdny)> n. a native, the native, two natives, a native's character.

Compounding is the productive type of word-building in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems. (blackbird, sunflower, girl-friend, ashtray, bedroom, birthday)

There are two main ways of shortening: contraction (clipping) and abbreviation (initial shortening). Contraction (clipping) is to make a new word from a syllable (rare two) of the original word.

There are four types of contraction:

1) Final clipping (apocope) - omission of the final part of the word eg doc> doctor, lab> laboratory, vac> vacation, ad> advertisement

2) Initial clipping (apheresis) - omission of the fore part of the word eg phone> telephone, plane> airplane, story> history, Fred> Alfred

3) Medial clipping (syncope) - omission of the middle part of the word eg maths> mathematics, fansy> fantasy, specs> spectacles

4) Mixed clipping - omission of the fore and the final parts of the word eg tec> detective, flu> influenza, fridge> refrigerator, Liz> Elizabeth

The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group and called abbreviation (initial shortening). They are subdivided into five groups:

1) Acronyms. These words are read in accordance with the rules of orthoepy, eg UNO (United Nation Organization), UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

2) Alphabetic abbreviations. In this case letters get their full alphabetic pronunciation and a full stress, eg the USA (the United States of America), B.B.C. (British Broadcasting Corporation), M.P. (Member of Parliament), F.B.I. (Federal Bureau of Investigation), CV (Curriculum vitae), EU (European Unity).

3) Compound abbreviations. The first immediate constituent is a letter and the second - a complete word, eg A-bomb (Atomic bomb), V-day (Victory day), Z-hour (Zero hour)

4) Graphic abbreviations. They are used in texts for economy of space and are pronounced as the corresponding unabbreviated words, eg Mr. (Mister), m. (Mile), ft. (Foot), v. (Verb), pp. (Pages), etc.

5) Latin abbreviations. They are read as separate letters or are substituted by their English equivalents, eg i.e. (That is), am (in the morning), ld (in some place), ef (compare), pa (Lat. Per annum)

Phrasal Verbs Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb and adverb or a verb and preposition (or verb with both adverb and preposition). They divided into two groups: non-idiomatic (retain their primary local meaning), eg come in, come out, take off, put down, drink up, etc. and idiomatic (can not be derived from their immediate constituents), eg bring up, bear out, give in, fall out, etc.

22. Non-productive ways of word-formation

Sound interchange is the way of word building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English; it was productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European languages.

The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language development known to scientists., e.g. to strike - stroke, to sing - song etc. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root vowel because of the front vowel in the syllable coming after the root (regressive assimilation), e.g. hot - to heat (hotian), blood - to bleed (blodian) etc.

In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocal position, e.g. bath - to bathe, life - to live, breath - to breathe etc.

Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. `accent - to ac`cent. This phenomenon is explained in the following way: French verbs and nouns had different structure when they were borrowed into English; verbs had one syllable more than the corresponding nouns. When these borrowings were assimilated in English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable (the second from the end) . Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs) and after that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in nouns it was on the first syllable. As a result of it we have such pairs in English as: to af`fix -`affix, to con`flict- `conflict, to ex`port -`export, to ex`tract - `extract etc. As a result of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed positions.

23. Affixation. Itsmaintypes

Affixation is the process of adding a morpheme (oraffix) to a word to create either

(a) a different form of that word (e.g., bird → birds), or

(b) a new word with a different meaning (bird → birder).

Types of affixes on the basis of places

Affixes can be of four types on the basis of their places. That means, on the basis of the part of the root word they are added into; affixes can be of four different types:

• Prefixes

Affixes that are added in beginning of any root word are called prefixes.

1. Negative prefixes: in-, un-, non-, dis-, a- etc. (connect-disconnect, moral-amoral, justice-injustice)

2. Size and degree affixes: mini-, over-, sub-, super- etc. (skirt-miniskirt, man-superman, set-subset)

• Suffixes

Affixes that are added in end of any root word are called suffixes. (cat-cats, fool-foolish, respect-respectful)

• Infixes

Affixes which get added in mid part of a single root word are called infixes. In Standard English grammar, infixes do not exist. (Hallebloodylujah!,Absogoddamlutely!Unfuckinbelievable!)

• Circumfixes

Circumfixes are exact opposites of infixes. They round / circle the root word. That means, a circumfix gets divided into two parts and these two parts are placed in beginning and end of the root word respectively. Don’t exist in Standard English.

Types of affixes on the basis of functions

• Inflectional affixes

Inflectional affixes suggest grammatical information about the word.

-s, -ed, -en, -ing, -s, -‘s, -er, -est (gives, watched, gone, taken, flying, cats, John’s, better, best)

• Derivational affixes

Unlike inflectional affixes, derivational affixes can "derive" entirely new words from the existing ones. Thus, they are more productive than inflectional morphemes.

-ic, -unce, -ity, -ly, -ive, -abve, -ise (heroic, performance, activity, badly, creative, sharable, characterise)

Un-, dis-, anti-, in- (unhappy, disestablish, anticapitalist, indecent)

Re-, -ship, -ist, -er, -let, -hood (recover, friendship, capitalist, lecturer, booklet, childhood)

23. Blending as a way of word formation in Modern English

Blending is one of the most beloved of word formation processes in English. It is especially creative in that speakers take two words and merge them based not on morpheme structure but on sound structure. The resulting words are called blends.

In blending, part of one word is stitched onto another word, without any regard for where one morpheme ends and another begins. Examples: brunch (breakfast and lunch), motel (motor hotel), electrocute (electric and execute), smog (smoke and fog) and cheeseburger (cheese and hamburger).

23. Clipping as a way of word formation. Types of clipping.

Clipping is a type of abbreviation of a word in which one part is 'clipped' off the rest, and the remaining word now means essentially the same thing as what the whole word means or meant. For example, burger, formed by clipping off the beginning of the word hamburger.

Clipping mainly consists of the following types:

Back clipping (the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples are: ad (advertisement), cable(cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination))

Fore-clipping (retains the final part. Examples: bot (robot), net (Internet))

Middle clipping (the middle of the word is retained. Examples are: flu (influenza), fridge (refrigerator))

Complex clipping (Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), org-man(organization man), linocut (linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate)

23. Conversion. Typical semantic relations within a conversion pair.

In linguistics, conversion, also called zero derivation, is a kind of word formation; specifically, it is the creation of a word (of a new word class) from an existing word (of a different word class) without any change in form.^[1] For example, the noun green in golf (referring to a putting-green) is derived ultimately from the adjective green.

Conversions from adjectives to nouns and vice versa are both very common and unnotable in English; much more remarked upon is the creation of a verb by converting a noun or other word (e.g., the adjective clean becomes the verb to clean).

Typical semantic relations within a converted pair

I. Verbs converted from noun (denominal verbs) denote:

1.action characteristic of the object ape (n) - to ape (v) butcher (n) - to butcher (v) 2.instrumental use of the object screw (n) - to screw (v) whip (n) - to whip (v)

3.acquisition or addition of the object fish (n) - to fish (v)

II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal nouns) denote:

1. instance of the action:to jump (v) -jump (n); to move (v) - move (n)

2. agent of the action: to help (v) - help (n), to switch (v) - switch (n)

3. place of action: to drive (v) - drive (n), to walk (v) - walk (n)

4.object or result of the action: to peel (v) - peel (n), to find (v) - find (n).

23. Derivation as a word-formative process in English

Derivation is the process of forming new words from existing ones by adding affixes to them, like shame + less + ness → shamelessness. In cases in which there is a one-to-one correspondence between affixes and syntactical categories, this is known as agglutination, as seen in agglutinative languages.

23. Shortening. Types of shortening.

Shortening is the process and the result of forming a word out of the initial elements (letters, morphemes) of a word combination.

Shortenings are produced in 2 ways:

·        To make a new word from a syllable (rarer two) of the original words. The latter may lose it’s beginning (telephone – phone, defence - fence), it’s ending (holidays – hols, advertisement- ad), or both the beginning and the ending (influenza – flu, refrigerator - fridge)

·        To make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: U.N.O – United Nation Organization, B.B.C. and etc.

23. Word composition. Types of compound words. Different criteria for classification.

Compounding or word-composition is one of the productive means of word-formation in Modern English. Compounds are words that are made up of two immediate constituents which are both derivative bases.  Derivative bases in compounds can have different degrees of complexity: 1. both bases are simple (weekend, girlfriend). 2. one base is simple, the other is derivative (a shoemaker). 3. one base is compound and the other is either simple or derivative (fancy-dress -> fancydress-ball, маскарад; fancydress-maker).

Classification of compounds. 1) According to the type of word-formation: a. compounds proper – are words made up of two derivative bases (red-current, girlfriend) b. derivational compounds – are words formed by affixation or conversion from a compound derivational base (blue-eyed, a breakdown) c. pseudo-compounds - The constituent members of compound words of this subgroup are in most cases unique, carry very vague or no lexical meaning of their own, are not found as stems of independently functioning words. They are motivated mainly through the rhythmic doubling of fanciful sound-clusters. (loudmouth). 2) Semantic a. subordinate (подчинительные) – words where one of the derivative bases is the grammatical and semantical center of the word, as a rule – the 2 one – a head member. It expresses the general meaning of the word, and the first one specifies it (girlfriend) b. coordinate (сочинительные) – words where both components are equally important: - reduplicated – formed by repeating the base (fifty-fifty) - rhyming (walkie-talkie, willy-nilly) - additive – denote an object or a person that is two things at a time (Anglo-Saxon, an actor- manager)

Criteria of distinguishing between compounds and free-word combinations. Compounds are inseparable lexical units that are presented in dictionaries in special entries and sub-entries. Compounds are reproduced and used in speech as lexical units, they are not formed in speech like free-word combinations. They are only pronounced as lexical units (a red rose, a redskin). Inseparability of compounds has graphical (one word or a hyphen), phonetic (stress), morphological (only 2 base shows grammatical category) and semantic (grammatical formes differ from the forms of the motivating words (richer – more oil-richer) criteria.