3. Національні символи Великобританії.

The National Flag of the UK is commonly called the 'Union Jack' and is made up of three flags: St. George's Cross, St. Andrew's Cross, and St. Patrick's Cross. The design was meant to reflect the 1801 Act of Union between Britain and Ireland (the Welsh flag was not incorporated into the British Union Flag). The Cross of St. George, the Patron Saint of England, which is a red cross with extended horizontals on a white field, is the national English flag. St. Andrew's Flag of Scotland is a white saltire cross on a blue field. It was merged with the national flag of England in 1606 by King James I. Even on St. Patrick's day St. Patrick's red saltire cross on a white field is not widely flown by Irish people who, for the most part, do not recognise it as their own. It is seen as a British symbol. Irish National Flag (Tricolour) is much more popular. It has its origins in the French Revolution and the French flag. The Tricolour was designed to signify the peace (white) between Nationalists (green) and Unionists (orange).

The Three Lions Crest is the national emblem of England and is part of the Royal Coat of Arms. Richard the Lionheart (1189 - 1199) used the three golden lions (sometimes described as leopards) on their scarlet background as a powerful symbol of the English Throne during the time of the Crusades. The first and fourth quadrants of the shield on the Royal Coat of Arms represent England and contain three gold lions with their right forepaws raised and their heads facing the viewer on a red field; the second quadrant represents Scotland and contains a pacing red lion on a gold field; the third quadrant represents Ireland and contains the gold harp of Ireland on a blue field. On the left, the shield is supported by the English Lion. On the right it is supported by the chained Unicorn of Scotland. The coat features both the motto of British Monarchs: Dieu et mon droit (God and my right) and the motto of the Order of the Garter: Honi soit qui mal y pense ('Evil to him who evil thinks').

Each country in Britain has its own patron saint and floral emblem. The national flower of England is the rose. The flower has been adopted as England’s emblem since the time of the War of the Roses - civil war (1455-1485) between the royal house of Lancaster (whose emblem was a red rose) and the royal house of York (whose emblem was a white rose). The national flower of Scotland is the thistle, which was first used in the 15th century as a symbol of defence. The national flower of Wales is the daffodil, which is traditionally worn on St. David’s Day. The vegetable called leek is also considered to be a traditional emblem of Wales. There are many explanations of how the leek came to be adopted as the national emblem of Wales. One is that St David advised the Welsh, on the eve of battle with the Saxons, to wear leeks in their caps to distinguish friend from foe. The national flower of Northern Ireland is the shamrock. An Irish tale tells of how Patrick used the three-leafed shamrock to explain the Trinity. He used it in his sermons to represent how the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit could all exist as separate elements of the same entity.

4. Святі покровителі Британії./ Patron Saints of Britain.

ST. PATRICK is the patron saint of Ireland. It is believed that he was enslaved by Irish pirates who raided his home, probably in South Wales. He managed to escape from the pirates and began to be trained as a priest for priesthood, but he never completed his training. Still he was determined to return to Ireland and to evangelize its people. He is said to have landed again in Ireland in the 5^th century and his work was a vital factor in the spread of Christian influence there. His symbols are snakes and shamrocks. His feast-day is 17 March. This church festival is regarded as a national day in Ireland. Shamrock was used by St. Patrick to illustrate the doctrine of Trinity. It is adopted as the national emblem of Ireland.

ST. GEORGE is the patron saint of England. He was martyred at Lydda in Palestine: he was shod in red-hot shoes, broken on a spiked wheel and immersed in quicklime. The legend of his having slain a dragon was very popular: he rescued a king’s daughter from becoming the dragon’s tribute and so managed to covert her people. Richard I (the Lionheart) was said to have had a vision of him and was able to restore the saint’s tomb at Lydda. Saint George was proclaimed chief patron of England when English soldiers under Henry V won the battle of Agincourt. His feast-day is 23 April. On this day some patriotic Englishmen wear a rose pinned to their jackets.

ST. ANDREWis the patron saint of Scotland. He was a New Testament apostle who was martyred on an X-shaped cross (St. Andrew’s Cross). He was said to have given the Pictish army a vision of this cross at the battle of Athenstoneford between King Angus of the Picts and King Athelstan of the Angles. St. Andrew was foisted upon Scotland as its patron when the old Celtic and Culdee centres were superseded by the new bishopric of St. Andrew’s. His feast-day is 30 November. On this day some Scotsmen wear a thistle in the buttonhole.

ST. DAVIDis the patron saint of Wales. According to the legend he was the son of a Prince of Cardiganshire and uncle of King Arthur. He was a Christian abbot and bishop and founded twelve monasteries from Croyland to Pembrokeshire. In these monasteries the regime was very austere. He was nicknamed “Aquaticus” after his habit of drinking only water. His feast-day is 1 March. This day is regarded as the national holiday of Wales (although it is not an official bank holiday). On this day many Welshmen wear either a daffodil or a leek pinned to their jackets. These plants are traditionally regarded as national emblems of Wales.

5. Національний характер та національні стереотипи Великої Британії та США. Characteristics and National Stereotype in Great Britain and the USA.

Almost every nation has a reputation of some kind. The French are supposed to be amorous, cheerful and fond of champagne. The Germans are dull, formal, efficient and fond of military uniforms, and parades. The Americans are boastful, energetic, sociable and vulgar. The English are reputed to be cold, reserved people who do not yell in the street, make love in public or change their governments as often as they change their shirts. They are steady, easy-going, and fond of sports.

The foreigner’s opinion of the English is very often based on the type of Englishman he has learned about from novels and anecdotes. It is obvious that this cannot be taken as general for the whole people. There are, however, certain kinds of behaviour, manners and customs, which are peculiar to England.

The English are a nation of stay-at-homes. There is no place like home, they say. Even nowadays, when travelling became so popular with all classes, this peculiar feature has preserved. When an Englishman is not working he withdraws from the world to the company of his wife and children. Of course, he likes a glass of beer in the pub, but he remains a stay-at-home. “The Englishman’s home is his castle”, is a saying known all over the world, and it is true that English people prefer houses, built to house one family, perhaps with a small garden.

6. Мовні сім’ї у Британії. / Language Families in Britain.

A language family is a group of languages that have a common origin. Linguists establish comparatively their sound systems, vocabulary, and grammar. Among the most important language families are the Indo-European, Finno-Ugric, Indo-Chinese, Malayo-Polynesian and Semitic.

Various branches exist within language families. For example, in the Indo-European family Germanic and Italic are subfamilies, and the Romance languages are a subgroup of the Italic.

Proto-Germanic gave rise to Dutch, English, German and Scandinavian tongues. Proto-Romance gave rise to French, Italian, Spanish and other tongues. French, German, Italian, Russian and English are Indo-European languages, but French and Italian are more closely related than Italian and German or English and Russian.

Linguists can trace the relationship of languages by comparing words in one language with words having the same meaning in another language. For instance, if we compare words in English and German, we find hand and Hand, foot, feet and Fub, Fube, lips and Lippen, lungs and Lungen. In addition there are some similarities in grammatical structures.

The relationships of this kind are characteristic of languages that belong to the same language family. Such relationships do not exist across language-family lines. Thus it may be established that Greek, the Slavic languages (such as Russian), the Celtic languages (such as Irish) and even some of the languages of India (such as Sanskrit) are members of the Indo-European family but it has been proved that Finnish and Hungarian are not members of this language family.

7. Життя сім’ї у Британії. / Family Life in Britain.

The English are a nation of stay-at-home. “There is no place like home”, they say. And when the man is not working he is at home in the company of his wife and children and busies himself with the affairs of the home. “The Englishman’s home is his castle”, is a saying known all over the world. And it is true.

A “typical” British family used to consist of mother, father and two children, but in recent years there have been many changes in family life. Some of these have been caused by new laws and others are the result of changes in society. For example, since the law made it easier to get a divorce, the number of divorces has increased. In fact one marriage in every three now ends in divorce. This means that there are a lot of one-parent families. Society is now more tolerant than it used to be of unmarried people, unmarried couples and single parents.

Another change has been caused by the fact that the people are living longer nowadays, and many old people live alone following the death of their parents. As a result of these changes in the pattern of people’s life, there are many households, which consist of only one person or one person and children.

You might think that marriage and the family are not so popular as they once were. However, the majority of divorced people marry again, and they sometimes take responsibility for a second family.

Members of the family – grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins – keep in touch, but they see less of each other than they used to. This is because people often move away from their home town to work, and so the family becomes scattered. Christmas is the traditional season for reunions. Although the family group is smaller nowadays than it used to be, relatives often travel many miles in order to spend the holiday together.

In general, each generation is keen to become independent of parents in establishing its own family unit, and this fact can lead to social as well as geographical differences within the larger family group.

Relationships within the family are different now. Parents treat their children more as equals than they used to, and children have more freedom to make their own decisions. The father is more involved with bringing up children, often because the mother goes out to work. Increased leisure facilities and more money mean that there are greater opportunities outside the home. Although the family holiday is still an important part of family life (usually taken in August, and often abroad) many children have holidays away from their parents, often with a school party or other organized group.

8. Британці, які вони є / The British as they are.

Great Britain is an island on the outer edge of the European continent, and its geographical situation has produced a certain insular spirit among its inhabitants, who tend, a little more perhaps than other people, to regard their own community as the centre of the world. The insularity produces a certain particularism among the numerous groups of whom the whole community is composed. The British look on foreigners in general with contempt and think that nothing is as well done elsewhere as in their own country. The British people have also been known as superior, snobbish, aloof, hypocritical and unsociable.

These characteristics have been noted by people from all over the world, but are they typical of all the Britons? The ordinary Briton was seen to be friendly and sociable. There are indeed two nations, with basically different outlooks and characters, in Britain. The two nations are defined simply as the rich and the poor. The traditional opinion about the British, or the English in earlier centuries, was based on the habits of those Britons who could afford to travel, the diplomats and merchants. English vanity and arrogance grew as England fought off the competition from other European countries and became the world’s leading trading nation, going on to industrialize rapidly.

Englishmen tend to be rather conservative, they love familiar things. They are hostile, or at least bored, when they hear any suggestion that some modification of their habits, or the introduction of something new and unknown into their lives, might be to their advantage. This conservatism, on a national scale, may be illustrated by reference to the public attitude to the monarchy, an institution that is held in affection and reverence by nearly all English people.

Britain is supposed to be the land of law and order. Part of the British sense for law and orderliness is a love of precedent. For an Englishman, the best of all reasons for doing something in a certain way is that it has always been done in that way.

The Britons are practical and realistic; they are infatuated with common sense. They are not misled by romantic delusions.

9. Їжа та напої у Британії (США) Food and Drink in Britain (the USA).

Meals and mealtimes in England are not the same in all families.

Breakfast is the first meal of the day. But it is often a rather hurried and informal meal. Most people do not have a full breakfast, and some have no breakfast at all apart from a hot drink. People who do have a full breakfast say that it is quite good. That is why the writer Somerset Maugham once gave the following advice: «If you want to eat well in England, eat three breakfasts daily.”

At one o’clock comes a meal, which is dinner to some people, lunch for others. More than half the population has a hot dinner (sometimes called lunch) in the middle of the day, and a cool meal in the evening. Others have a light lunch at one, and a hot dinner in the evening. Many men work too far away from their homes to be able to go home for a hot meal in the middle of the day, and many schoolchildren, too, have their lunch in schools. But on Sundays the family sits down together. Sometimes the mother puts the food on the plates in the kitchen, carrying them into the dining-room afterwards; sometimes it is served from large dishes in the dining-room itself.

The next meal is tea, with slices of bread and butter, cakes, and of course, cups of tea. Mother and children may have their tea together at five o’clock in the afternoon, or they may wait a little for father to come in after work.

As it was said above, in the evening some people have a cool meal, which they usually call high tea (or supper). Others have a main meal in the evening, called dinner

10. Стародавні часи. Завоювання Британії кельтами / The Dawn of British History. The Celts.

About 3000 years BC many parts of Europe, including the British Isles, were inhabited by a people called the Iberians who are still found in the North of Spain (later they were mixed with the Picts, Scots and Celts).

During the period from the 6^th-3^rd c. BC a people called the Celts, tall and fair, spread all over Europe from the east to the west. The Celts were ancient people who lived in Central and Western Europe during the New Stone Age, Bronze Age and moved to the British Isles from the continent, from what are now France and Germany during the Iron Age. Whole tribes migrated to the Isles, warriors with their chiefs, their women and their children. The invasion of these tribes known as Celtic tribes went on from the 8^th – 7^th cc. BC to the 1^st c. BC.

The first Celtic comers were the Gaels, but the Brythons arrived some two centuries later and pushed the Gaels to Wales, Scotland, Ireland and Cornwall (West Wales), taking possession of the south and east. The Scots crossed over to Ireland and settled there. Later the Scots returned to the larger island and in time the name of Scotland was given to the country. Powerful Celtic tribes, the Brythons (Britons), held most of the country, and the southern half of the island was named Britain after them.

Then after a considerable lapse of time, somewhat about the 1^st c. BC, the most powerful tribe, the Belgae, claimed possession of the south-east while part of the Brythons was pushed on to Wales though the rest stayed in what is England today, and probably gave their name to the whole country (Britain).

Thus the whole of Britain was occupied by the Celts who merged with the Picts and Scots, as well as with the Alpine part of the population; latter predominated in the west while the rest of the British Isles became distinctly Celtic in language and structure of society.

11. Завоювання Британії римлянами / The Roman Conquest of Britain.

In the 1^st c. AD the Romans who ruled the entire civilized world at that time conquered Britain. Roman society differed greatly from that of the Celts. It was a slave society divided into antagonistic classes, the slaves and the slave-owners. One of the last countries to be conquered by Rome was France, or Gaul. The war against the Gauls, who were Celtic tribes, lasted for eight years. In the course of his campaign Julius Caesar reached the Channel. In 55 BC the Roman army of 10,000 men crossed the Channel and invaded Britain. The Celts fought bravely for their independence, but they were not strong enough, in spite of their courage, to drive the Romans off.

Although Julius Caesar came to Britain twice in the course of two years, he was not able to conquer it. In 43 AD the Emperor Claudius sent the strong 50-thousand army to Britain. The army landed in Kent and crossed the Thames. It was a military occupation that lasted four centuries. Since that time up to 410 Britain was one of the remote provinces of the Roman Empire. Other parts of the country were taken from time to time during next 40 years.

Britain became a sort of Celtic resistance centre. The suppression of the Celts was a hard job. The Romans kept pushing on and at the end of the 1c. AD, when Agricola was the chief Roman governor of Britain (78-85), he invaded Caledonia (Scotland).

12. Англо-саксонське завоювання Британії / The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain.

Towards the end of the 4^th c. barbaric tribes invaded AD Europe. After the Roman legions left Britain the Celts remained independent but not for long. From the middle of the 5^th c. they had to defend the country against the attacks of the Germanic tribes from the Continent. In the 5^th century first the Jutes and then other Germanic tribes, the Saxons and the Angles, began to migrate to Britain. They were sea-robbers, wild and fearless people. The Anglo-Saxons were tall, strong men with blue eyes and long blond hair.

In 449 the Jutes landed in Kent. That was the beginning of the conquest. The British natives fought fiercely against the invaders and it took more than a hundred and fifty years for the Angles, Saxons and Jutes to conquer the country.

The Britons could never drive them away. They were forced to retreat to the west of Britain. Those who stayed became slaves of the Anglo-Saxons.

For a long time the tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes fought against one another for supreme power. Britain split up into seven kingdoms: Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria.

The new conquerors brought about some changes. They disliked towns and villages. They destroyed the Roman towns and villages. The roads were broken. The Jutes, Saxons and Angles were closely alike in speech and customs. They gradually merged into one people. They called the Celts “welsh” which means “foreigners” as they did not understand the Celtic language. The Anglo-Saxon villages were small. Nearly all the villagers were engaged in cultivating the land. Corn was grown on the arable land – that is ploughed land. They used the two-field system (the land was given a rest every second year). The plough was made of wood covered with iron. Besides arable - farming, they continued cattle-breeding, hunting and fishing.

13. Встановлення Англійського королівства / Establishment of the Kingdom of England.

At the end of the 8^th century another branch of the Germanic people began to attack Britain. There were two Scandinavian peoples, the Danes and Norwegians. The Danes became the invaders of England and the Norwegians invaded Scotland and Ireland.

The Danes were of the same Germanic race as the Anglo-Saxons themselves. It was in 793 that the Danes carried out their first raids in Britain. Thus began the fourth conquest of Britain. Their raids were successful because the kingdom of England had neither a regular army nor a fleet in the North Sea to meet them. Gradually they began settling in Britain.

The Anglo-Saxons understood that their small kingdoms must unite in order to struggle against the Danes.

In the 9^th c. Egbert, the first king of Wessex, one of the strongest Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united several neighbouring kingdoms. The united kingdom got the name of England and Egbert became the first king of the united country.

In the 10^th century under the rule of Alfred the Great the Saxon monarchy was further consolidated and won several victories over the Danes.

Alfred gathered a big army and gave the Danes a great battle at Maldon in 891. The Danes defeated in this battle, but still remained very strong and dangerous.

Alfred hurried to make peace with them. He had to give the Danes the greater portion of England. The kingdom that was left in Alfred’s possession was Wessex.

There were some years of peace, and during this time Alfred built the first English navy.

The Danes were not driven out of the country, but they were made subjects of Wessex. English kings once more ruled all England. The Danes were not very much different from the Anglo-Saxons among whom they lived because they were also of Germanic origin as we mentioned before. The Danes influenced the development of the country greatly. They were good sailors and traders. They were skillful shipbuilders. The whole country formed the united kingdom.

14. Норманське завоювання / The Norman Conquest of England.

In the 11^th century England was invaded by the Normans. This was the seventh and the last invasion of England.

Many changes came about in the life of the Normans and the Danes after the 9^th century. By the 11^th century the Danes had finally settled down as subjects of the English kings. As time went on they gradually mixed with the Anglo-Saxons among whom they lived. But the Normans who had settled down in France lived among the French people, who were different people, with different manners, customs and language. These descendants of the Northmen who had settled in northern France in the 9^th century became the new conquerors of England.

In 1066 William began to gather an army to invade Britain. The battle between the Normans and the Anglo-Saxons took place on the 14^th of October 1066 at Hastings. William’s army was much stronger and superior to the Saxon’s “fyrd”. And with the death of their leader Harold the English army understood that the battle was lost.

This victory at Hastings was only the beginning of the conquest. It took several years for William and his barons to subdue the whole of England. He ruled England for 21 years (1066 - 1087).To protect himself from possible attacks of the Saxons, William ordered to build a strong tower on the left bank of the Thames. This tower still stands there. It is called the White Tower because it is built of white stone. Later other buildings were added and the whole place was surrounded by a stone wall to form a strong fortress, which we know, now as the Tower of London.

15. Велика Хартія (1215) та утворення парламенту / The Great Charter (1215) and Parliament.

The Middle Ages in England was a period of feudal wars, a period of struggle for power between the kings and the Church, between the kings and powerful barons. The kings took large sums of money from the barons for the wars in Europe. Those who refused to give money were arrested.

In 1215 the barons revolted and soon had a large army against the king. King John stood alone. He was forced to sign the Great Charter (Magna Carta) at Runnymede, a document where the rights of the Englishmen were written down. Of course, the Great Charter did not mean freedom for the masses of the people who at that time were serfs. But later on, in the 17^th and 19^th centuries, when the English people revolted against oppression, they took the Great Charter as the banner of the revolution.

The Great Charter contained a long list of limitations to the King’s power and these rights obtained by the Barons were eventually extended to the entire population. A council of twenty-five barons was organized to control the king. That was the beginning of the English Parliament. At first the great barons dominated it, but at the end of the 13^th century the English Parliament was divided into the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

The origins of Parliament are to be found in the reign of John’s successor Henry III. It was a meeting of the King and his Barons and servants at which various administrative and financial problems were discussed. In order to make it easier to put the decisions taken into practice, each Shire had to elect a number of knights to attend these meetings and report the decisions to the Shires. Edward I continued this experiment and in 1295 called a parliament that became known as the Model Parliament, at which barons, earls and high clergy (bishops and abbots) were present, together with the knights representing the shires and boroughs. The “House of Commons” as a separate Chamber resulted from the unofficial meetings of these knights. The person chosen to speak for these “commoners” in Parliament became known as the Speaker.

16. Селянське повстання (1381) The Peasants’ Revolt of 1381.

In the 14^th c. the English kings tried to keep control of the land they ruled in France. The Hundred Years War (1337-1453) fought between France and England had a devastating effect on the English economy.

The people of England had to pay for the war and the Black Death (a plague in 1348 that killed a third of the population of England). In 1381 a tax of one shilling a head was taken by the government from every man or woman above fifteen years of age. The high taxation led to such extreme hardship for the peasant class that there was a revolt in 1381. The peasants did not want to pay the tax. In some villages they attacked and killed tax collectors. Then they gathered in two large armies and went to London, the city which after the Norman Conquest became the capital of England.

In London the peasants had many supporters. They helped the peasants to enter the city. The peasants surrounded the Tower of London where the king lived at that time. Wat Tyler, one of the leaders of the revolt, was sent to the king, but the king’s soldiers killed him.

The peasants then left London, but on the way home they were attacked by the king’s soldiers. Hundreds of peasants were killed. Thus the king put an end to the revolt. But the peasants’ revolt of 1381 was an important event in the history of England. Although the Peasants’ Revolt was soon put down, it showed that a serf wanted to be a free peasant farmer. It led to greatly improved conditions for the peasant class and was the first step towards the ending of the feudal system in England.

17. Війни троянд (1455-1485) The Wars of the Roses.

No sooner was the Hundred Years War over than a long power struggle (1455-1485) began for the English Crown between the two parts of the English royal family. Each of them wanted its own leader to be king. One family was called Lancaster and was represented by a red rose, and the other was called York, and was represented by a white rose. The Wars of Roses ended at the battle of Bosworth Field, when Henry VII (Henry Tudor) united the two rival houses, giving origin to the Tudor dynasty (connected with the English royal family that ruled from 1485-1603).

During Henry’s reign the medieval period came to a close. Men were free to go and settle wherever they liked, the power of the towns with their educated and industrious middle classes, began to make itself felt; the printing was introduced which enabled the diffusion of knowledge.

Henry’s son, Henry VIII (1509-1547), was a typical Renaissance prince: handsome, learned and ambitious. He also had an instinctive understanding of his times. It was his creation of the Royal Navy that enabled England to realize her imperialistic ambitions under Elizabeth and defy the Pope and the catholic powers of Europe.

Elizabeth I (1558-1603) was an outstanding ruler. She restored national unity, opposing extremist doctrines and supporting a moderate form of Protestantism similar to that of her father’s. Her reign is considered by many as the Golden Age of English history, producing not only poets of the stature of Shakespeare and Spenser, but also prosperity for the entire nation. The discovery of America placed Britain at the centre of the world’s trading routes and brilliant naval commanders (especially Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh) enabled England to dominate these trade routes. During this period great trading companies like the East India Company, were also established. Parliament was regularly called and consulted.

18. Економічний підйом в Англії в 16-му ст. / The Rise of England in the 16^th c.

During the Middle Ages England was more rural than, for example France. Its towns were smaller and far away from the centres of the world trade. In the 16^th century they began to grow and England became one of the most powerful countries in the world.

One of the most important factors was the early decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism. At that time English farmers began to grow a lot of sheep for wool. Those peasants who had to leave their villages found work in the growing textile industry in the towns. The English woollen cloth was exported to many European countries.

To develop trade with other countries England built ships. After the great geographical discoveries, big ships were sent not only to Europe, but also to India and America. The growing trade brought wealth to the new capitalists in England.

England also built fast ships for the war with Spain. At that time Spain had the largest and strongest fleet in the world. In 1588 England won a great victory over the Spanish fleet and became one of the greatest sea powers in the world.

19. Англійська буржуазна революція (1640-1660) / The English Bourgeois Revolution (1640-1660).

With the development of capitalism, the English bourgeoisie was becoming richer and wanted to have a say in the government. The first 40 years of the 17^th century was a period of growing conflict between the king and the Parliament, representing the interests of the bourgeoisie.

The Stuart kings James I and Charles I followed the medieval notions of monarchy, ignoring Parliament.

King Charles I was at war with Spain and France and wanted money for it. He raised taxes without permission. The Parliament refused to give the money. Then the king dismissed the Parliament and for more than ten years ruled England without it, until he needed its help to raise the money to fight the war against Scotland.

When the Parliament opened again in 1640, it opposed the king. Both sides began to prepare openly for war and eventually it broke out in 1642. The majority of the nobles supported Charles and the majority of the gentry supported Parliament in the fight over the power. The king and his soldiers were in Oxford. The soldiers of the Parliament (the Parliamentarian Roundheads) with Oliver Cromwell at their head were in London. The Parliament won a victory (1648) in the civil war, which lasted several (12) years.

In 1649, King Charles I was executed as an enemy of his country for treason, and England was proclaimed a republic with Oliver Cromwell at its head. Oliver Cromwell became the Protector of the new republic.

But the people were disappointed with the result of the revolution. Two years after Cromwell’s death (1658), the monarchy was restored. The government was too weak and the new Parliament decided to have a king. In 1660 Charles II was proclaimed the king of England. The English Revolution ended in a compromise between the bourgeoisie and the monarchy.

20. Індустріальна революція (1760-ті -1850-ті) / The Industrial Revolution (1760s- 1850s).

At the same time as the middle classes were expanding in Victorian Britain, so were the working classes. The Industrial Revolution had entered its second stage: new industries were developed; new large factories using new machinery were built. Britain’s products were exported all over the world.

In the period between 1760s and 1850s Britain became the first industrial country in the world known as “the workshop of the world”.

Early industrialization in Britain was connected with many important technical inventions, which were made at that time. The people learned to use coal for smelting iron. That was a very important factor for the development of modern metallurgy. Iron was used for various purposes: the first iron bridge was built in 1779 and the first iron ship in 1970.

As you know, the machines in the first factories were driven by water power. In 1764 James Watt invented the steam engine and twenty years later steam engines were used in the first factories of textile industry. The steam engine could drive various machines, carry goods and people more quickly and more cheaply. In 1807 Robert Fulton (an American) constructed the first steamship, and the first steam locomotive was constructed by George Stephenson in England in 1814. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened in 1830.

Technical progress was also made in agriculture. For example, the invention of the threshing machine not only made the farmer’s work easier and quicker, but also “freed” a large number of people for work in industry.

This period in Britain’s history is sometimes called the Industrial Revolution.

21. Чартиський рух (1837-1848) / The Chartist Movement (1837-1848).

With the development of industrial capitalism, the industrial proletariat appeared in Britain by the end of the 18^th century.

The Industrial Revolution and the wars for colonies did not make the working people of Britain rich. The new machines left many workers and peasants out of work. Thousands of people immigrated to the United States, Canada, later to Australia, New Zealand.

Life in the new factories and towns in Britain was one of terrible hardship. Men, women and children worked fifteen or sixteen hours a day in dangerous, unhealthy conditions for poor wages and lived in dirty slums, so vividly described by Charles Dickens in the novel “Bleak House”.

The industrial workers began to organize trade unions and fight for their interests and rights.

In 1837, London Working Men’s Association prepared a petition and called it the People’s Charter. The workers demanded social and political reforms. The Charter was sent to other industrial towns of Britain. The workers held meetings and demonstrations and signed the Charter. The Charter was also red in Parliament, but the members of Parliament rejected it. There were battles in the streets, strikes all over the country. Many workers were arrested and sent to prison.

Chartism was the first working class political movement in Britain and in the world.

22. Злет та падіння Британської імперії / The Rise and Fall of the British Empire.

In the 17^th century Britain had a large fleet and established its first overseas colonies. Its ships carried the products of the British industries all over the world and brought back food and raw materials.

Large territories in India, Australia, America and Africa became parts of the British Empire. Britain sent soldiers and clerks to these overseas lands to look after its property. Many people from Britain moved to these lands to live there. Some colonies were self-governing or dominions, such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Others like India and Africa were ruled by governors from Britain. The English language became an official language of these countries. At one time the British Empire covered one fifth of the earth and had one quarter of the world’s population.

Victoria’s death in 1901 coincided with the beginning of the decline in the power of the Empire. The white settler colonies had always enjoyed considerable self-government and in the first decade Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand were allowed to draw up their constitutions to become dominions. The non-white colonies were not so fortunate: India, “the jewel of the Crown” of the Victoria’s Empire, was subjected to an often harsh military rule, and vast areas of Africa remained firmly under British domination.

At the end of the 19^th century Britain began to lose industrial supremacy to the United States and Germany. The capitalists exported money to different countries, where labour and raw materials were cheap, but at home industry and agriculture were not progressing. The peoples of the colonist countries began to struggle for independence.

The major events of the 20^th century intensified national liberation movement in India, Burma and Pakistan. After the Second World War these and many other countries in Africa became independent.

23. Британія та Ірландія / Britain and Ireland.

British colonization of Ireland began in the Middle Ages under Henry II, but the real conquest of Ireland dates from the beginning of the 17^th c., when James I of England began the systematic expropriation of land from the Irish by sending anti-Catholic Protestants from Scotland to settle in Ulster, the north-eastern region of Ireland, which had always put up the greatest resistance to English rule. Fifty years later, Oliver Cromwell put down the Irish rebellions with extreme ferocity. In 1690 the Irish made another attempt to resist the conquest of their country by allying themselves with James II of England. He tried to recover his crown after the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, which had replaced him with William III. Their defeat at the Battle of Boyne gave ascendancy to the pro-British Protestants, which had lasted in Ulster until the present day.

The Irish continued to resist. By the end of the 19^th century, most people in Britain Favoured Home Rule for Ireland, but the Protestant Unionists in the north were strong enough to prevent it. In 1916, however, the Irish rebelled once again, when a group of Irish Republicans staged the famous Easter Rising in Dublin. The uprising was put down, and the leaders were executed, but the brutal methods used by the British troops strengthened the Irish resistance. Their resistance led to the formation of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), which fought for five years against the British occupation. This resulted, in 1921, in independence of 26 counties of southern Ireland (which became the Republic of Eire in 1949).

24. Загальні відомості про політичну систему, державний устрій та політичні партії Великої Британії та США. / British and American Government.

In 1776 13 British colonies in North America united to gain their independence from the UK in the Revolutionary War (1776 – 1783). In 1787 delegates from 12 of the 13 states of the new republic composed the Constitution of the USA, which has been effective since 4 March 1789 and is the oldest still in force in the world. The Constitution sets the separation of powers into legislative (the Congress), the executive (the President and the Cabinet) and the judicial branches. The ultimate power under the Constitution is not given to any branch, it belongs to “We the People” in fact and in spirit. Because the Constitution has provided a flexible framework for controlling both the people who govern and the people who are being governed, it has served the American people long and well. The Bill of Rights determines the fundamental rights of Americans: the freedom of religion, speech and the press, the right of peaceful assembly and the right to petition the government.

The legislative branch is represented by bicameral Congress, which consists of the Senate (100 seats, one-third are renewed every two years; two members are elected from each state by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the House of Representatives (435 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms). Each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation. Legislation only becomes law if both houses agree. The congressional building is the Capitol. On its steps nearly all the presidents were inaugurated. The Library of Congress assembles exhibits on various topics, it also houses the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

The chief of the state and the head of the government is the president. The President of the United States and the Vice President are elected directly from each state and serve four-year terms. The Cabinet is appointed by the president with the Senate approval. The White House at Pennsylvania Avenue is the home and office of every U.S. President except George Washington who laid the cornerstone in 1793.

The judicial branch is represented by the Supreme Court (its nine justices are appointed for life on condition of good behavior by the president with the confirmation by the Senate); United States Courts of Appeal; United States District Courts; State and County Courts. Each state has its own unique legal system, of which all but one (Louisiana's) is based on English common law.

The leading political partiesare the Democratic Party, the Green Party, the Libertarian Party and the Republican Party.

The American Constitution divides power between the federal (national) government and the governments of the individual states. The division of power between the states and the national government is known as federalism. The national government deals with national issues such as economic and foreign policy, it has the exceptional right to coin money or declare war. Some powers belong to the states alone. Only the states can set up public school systems. Marriage and divorce laws, most criminal laws are made by state legislature; they may differ from state to state.

25. Монархія. / The Monarchy.

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. The head of the state is the monarch, who reigns with the support of parliament. It is a tribute to the British monarchy that it still occupies an important place in the political system and social life. The power of the crown to act without consulting parliament is called “the royal prerogative”. The Queen appoints the Prime Minister and summons and dissolves Parliament, opens and closes sessions of Parliament, appoints judges and bishops, creates peerage and awards titles and decorations. Declaration of war, treaties with other countries and the granting of self-government are executed by the crown. The Queen is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and the Head of the Commonwealth. In practice, howerever, these powers are ceremonial. Queen Elizabeth II and members of the Royal family take an active part in different charity projects and home and international social events.

The government is made up of the Prime Minister, Secretaries of State, ministers, junior ministers and private parliamentary secretaries (over 100 people in total). The Cabinet is the group of senior ministers. The main functions of the Cabinet are the final determination of policy, supreme control of the executive power and continuous coordination of the state activities. The composition of the cabinet is left to the personal discretion of the Prime Minister. Most cabinet ministers are heads of government departments.

The legislative power is executed by the Parliament. The first parliament was summoned in 1265. Modern British Parliament consists of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons has 650 Members of Parliament, who are elected directly by people every 5 years. The House of Lords has over 1,000 members, who are not elected, but are members of the nobility, bishops, judges, and people chosen by the Prime Minister. They sit in the House by right of inheritance or have been given life peerages which end with the life of their possessors. All proposed bills must pass through both houses before being sent for signature by the Queen, when they become Acts of Parliament and the Law of the Land.

The Houses of Parliament, otherwise known as the Palace of Westminster, stands on the site where Edward the Confessor had the original palace built in the first half of the eleventh century. In 1834 a fire broke out which destroyed much of the old palace. The magnificent Gothic Revival masterpiece we see today was built between 1840 and 1888. The two imposing towers are the clock tower, named after its thirteen ton bell called Big Ben, and Victoria tower, on the flag pole of which the National Flag flies during parliament sittings.

The Chamber of the House of Commonsis at the northern end of the Palace of Westminster. The benches, as well as other furniture in the Commons’ side of the Palace, are coloured green. The members of the cabinet sit on the front benches while opposition senior members sit directly opposite. The distance between the benches marked out on the floor in red lines, is exactly two sword lengths and one foot apart. Members are not allowed to cross these lines, thus ensuring that debates are kept orderly. The Speaker of the house presides over sittings, keeping order.

The Chamber of the House of Lordsis located in the southern part of the Palace of Westminster. The House of Lords decorated in scarlet and gold has all the grandeur one would expect in this chamber. This is where Her Majesty the Queen comes to open Parliament each November. The gold throne which dominates the house is where the Queen sits to deliver the traditional opening speech. The Lord Speaker sits opposite, on the famous Woolsack, this is a large scarlet cushion filled with wool, a tradition dating back to the middle ages when wool was England's largest export.

26. Політичні партії у Великій Британії та США. / Political parties in Britain and the USA.

Historically, two parties have usually been predominant in Britain at different times. Tories and Whigs, Conservatives and Liberals. But since the 1930s the situation has changed and Labour became Conservatives’ rival.

The Conservative Party developed in the 1830s out of the Tory party, with the maintenance of existing institutions as its policy. The Tory (Pursuer) party supported the Anglican Church and the hereditary right to the throne. They upheld the hereditary of James II to the throne.

In 1830s it was remodeled by Robert Peel to form the Conservative Party. Peel and his successor Benjamin Disraeli (the first Conservative Prime Minister) together shaped modern Conservatism. The Conservative Party was originally the party of church, aristocracy and landed gentry. But with the course of time it came to be supported by large business interests. The Conservatives allied (1886) with the Liberal Unionists led by J. Chamberlain. The party is traditionally supported by the landowners. In home policy they are strongly against the nationalization of British economy.

The name Liberal was first adopted officially by the Whigs (Doubtful) in 1868. The Whigs opposed in 1679 the succession of James II on account of his Catholic sympathies. The party was associated with free trade. They remained strong up to the end of the World War I. The leader of the party Lloyd George (1863-1945) was Prime Minister during the World War I. He introduced many social reforms, including old-age pensions and National Insurance. After the war the party faded out. It was replaced by the Labour Party after 1922 as the effective force committed to reform

The Labour Party is a socialist party in Great Britain. It was formed by Keir Hardie in 1892 to represent the workers and was more or less the parliamentary wing of the Trade Unions. In 1900 it was founded by the trade unions and the Independent Labour party. It was a federation of trade unions and trade councils, cooperative societies and socialist organizations. The leadership of the party denied the class struggle. It formed minority government under James Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937), who was the first socialist Prime Minister in 1924 and 1929-1931. It formed its first majority government under Attlee (1883-1967) in 1945-1951), nationalized many basic industries, and instituted the welfare state.

At present, in addition to the Conservative (Tory) Party and the Labour (Socialist) Party, the recently formed Green Party claims to be the nation’s third party.

27. Судова система Британії та США. / Courts System in Britain and the USA.

Her Majesty's Courts of Justice of England and Wales are the civil and criminal courts responsible for the administration of justice in England and Wales; they apply the law of England and Wales and are established under Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The House of Lords is the highest appeal court in almost all cases in England and Wales. The judicial functions of the House of Lords are entirely separate from its legislative role with only the Law Lords hearing the appeals from the Court of Appeal and the High Court. The House is also the court of trial in impeachment cases. The Supreme Court was created by the Judicature Acts as "Supreme Court of Judicature". It was renamed the Supreme Court of England and Wales in 1981. It is the most important superior court of England and Wales and consists of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice and the Crown Court. The Crown Court is a criminal court of both original and appellate jurisdiction which in addition handles a limited amount of civil business both at first instance and on appeal.

28. Система освіти у Великій Британії та CША. / The Education System of Great Britain (the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand).

Full-time education is compulsory for all children aged between 5 and 16 (inclusive) across England. This can be provided by state schools, independent schools, or homeschooling. About 94 per cent of pupils in England, and the rest of the UK, receive free education from public funds, while 6 per cent attend independent fee paying schools or homeschooling. All government-run schools, state schools, follow the same National Curriculum.

The school year runs from September to July and is 39 weeks long. For many areas the year is divided into six terms: September to October, October to December, January to February, February to March, April to May, June to July. The dates for school terms and holidays are decided by the local authority or the governing body of a school, or by the school itself for independent schools.

The main categories of school are:

• local authority maintained schools (State Schools). Free to all children between the ages of 5 – 16.

• independent schools (Private/Public Schools). Parents pay for their children's' education.

State Schools

State schools are non fee-paying, funded from taxes and most are organised by Local Authorities. Parents are expected to make sure that their child has a pen, pencil, ruler etc. but the cost of other more specialised equipment, books, examination fees are covered by the school. Parents are, however, expected to pay for their child's school uniform and items of sports wear. Charges may also be made for music lessons and for board and lodgings on residential trips.

Primary schools (5 - 11 years old)

In the UK, the first level of education is known as primary education. These are almost always mixed sex, and usually located close to the child's home. Children tend to be with the same group throughout the day, and one teacher has responsibility for most of the work they do. Parents are strongly encouraged to help their children, particularly with reading and writing, and small amounts of homework are set to all children, even during the early years at school. The classrooms are large and every classroom, in the main teaching block, has its own resource area. In all classrooms there is a computer, overhead projector, an interactive whiteboard and flip chart.

Secondary schools (11 - 16 years old)

Most children transfer at the age of 11 - usually to their nearest secondary school. A place has to be offered at the parents' preferred school. Most secondary schools are for both sexes. They tend to be much larger than primary schools.. All children in state schools are tested in English and mathematics at the ages of 7, 11 and 14, and pupils aged 11 and 14 are also tested in science.

Nearly 88 per cent of secondary school pupils in England go to comprehensive schools. They take children of all abilities and provide a wide range of secondary education for all or most of the children in a district from 11 to 16 or 18. All children in Scotland go to non-selective schools.

Grammar Schools are selective, they offer academically oriented general education. Entrance is based on a test of ability, usually at 11 (11+). Grammar schools are single sexed schools. Children either go to a Boys Grammar School or a Girls Grammar School. There are grammar schools in Northern Ireland and some parts of England.

The attendance of every child attending school each morning and afternoon is recorded in a special book. The teacher reads out each child’s name in turn. On hearing his/her name, the child replies 'yes Mrs. (teacher's name)' and the teacher notes down in the book whether the child is in school or not.

The school syllabus is divided into: - Arts (Humanities) – English Language and Literature, History, foreign languages, Music, Art, Drama - Sciences – Chemistry, Physics, Maths, Economics, Technical Drawing, Biology, Geography

The compulsory subjects are General Science, PE, Home Economics (for girls), Technical subjects (for boys)

Independent Schools 7% of the children in England go to independent schools. Independent schools are known as private schools and public schools. Parents pay for their children to attend these schools. Public schools in England are not run by the government. The entrance exams used by most public schools are known as Common Entrance exams and are taken at the age of 11 (girls) or 13 (boys). A preparatory school is a school to prepare pupils to go to a public school. The most famous public schools are Eton, Harrow and Winchester.

Higher Education

Both state schools and independent schools take the GCSE examinations, which mark the end of compulsory education at the age of 16 but around 30% of the British youth enter full-time higher education. Students study in either the Sixth Form at school, a Sixth form college, or a further education college. These courses can also be studied by adults over 18. Each school or sixth-form college has its School or College Council. It helps to plan the policy for the whole school, organizes the social and cultural life at the school.

Students normally enter universities or colleges of education from 18 onwards and study for an Academic Degree. There are about 100 universities in Britain. They differ in date of foundation, size, history, tradition, methods of instruction, way of student life. The formal entry requirements to most degree courses are two A-levels at grade E or above. Apart from private universities, all undergraduate education is largely state financed (with tuition fees set at a maximum index-linked £3,145 per year, repayable after graduation on attaining a certain level of income, and with the state paying all fees for students from the poorest backgrounds), and the UK students are generally entitled to student loans for maintenance. The state does not control syllabi, but it does influence admission procedures.

The first degree offered at British universities is the Bachelor's degree (typically three years). During a first degree students are known as undergraduates. Some universities offer a vocationally-based Foundation degree, typically two years in length for those students who hope to continue to take a first degree but wish to remain in employment.

Students who have completed the first degree are eligible to undertake a postgraduate degree, which includes:

• Master's degree(typically taken in one year)

• Doctorate degree(typically taken in three years)

Postgraduate education is not automatically financed by the State, and so admission is in practice highly competitive.

The oldest and best known universities are located in Oxford, Cambridge, London, Leeds, Manchester, Edinburgh, Southampton, Bristol. Oxford and Cambridge Universities date from the 12^th and the 13^th centuries. They are independent and consist of a number of colleges. Each college is governed by a Master and has its name and coat of arms. Some colleges are only for men, some only for women, the others admit both sexes. Only the education elite, mostly former public school students, go to Oxford and Cambridge. The universities cling to their traditions, such as public degree ceremonies held in Latin and full academic dress at examinations. There are over a hundred societies and clubs for every interest at the universities. The most popular sport is rowing.

29. Релігія у Великій Британії та США сьогодні. / Religion in Britain and the USA today.

Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom. Britan is predominantly Christian – one British citizen in 10 is a member of the Roman Catholic Church and there are 1.7 million members of the Anglican church (the Church of England) – the “Established Church”, that is the church legally recognized as the official church of the State. It dates from 1534, when Henry YIII broke away from the Church of Rome and declared himself Head of the Church of England. British monarchs still bear this title today. The Queen (or the King) on the advice of the Prime Minister appoints two Archbishops (of Canterbury, who is the Church’s leader, and of York) and 42 bishops who sit in the House of Lords. Although the Church receives no money from the state, it is a great property owner and also has a large number of stocks and shares. Priests in the Church of England have the right to be married, and in 1987 women were allowed to become priests. Very often vicars who are responsible for separate parishes take a great interest in their parishioners and combine the tasks of priest, social worker and psychologist.

However, there are many other churches to which people belong; e.g. Roman Catholic (six million), Methodists (1,150,000), Congregationalists (372,000), Baptists (338,000) and other smaller groups.

In Scotland there are 1.1 million members of the Presbyterian Church – the established church in Scotland. It is completely separated from the Anglican Church, has its own organization and appoints its own ministers. Presbyterianism is a severe form of Protestantism, founded in the 16^th century by the followers of the great French reformer Calvin. In Northern Ireland, about half the people regard themselves as Protestants and nearly 40% as Roman Catholics.

In Wales the Anglican Church was disestablished in 1920. It means that there is no one officially established church, but Methodist and Baptist are the two most widespread Christian Churches.

The leader of the Catholic Church in Britain is the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster. Normally only unmarried men are allowed to be Catholic priests but in 1987 for the first time two married men were allowed to train as priests.

30. Стратифікація Британського суспільства / Stratification of the British Society.

Social differentiation in British society is the following:

Upper Class

Aristocracy and the top rich people in Britain (the royal family, the surviving titled families from feudal system and old landowning families with aristocratic background (dukes, earls, barons) and the entrepreneurial rich enjoy special status in Britain, the status of the upper classes who are a very small minority of the country’s population (not more than 1% of it). They are treated with great difference in Britain, though not by all the people.

Most of the people are classified according to their occupation:

Middle Class / “White Collar”

• CLASS 1

Professional occupations, including higher-grade professionals and higher administrators, lawyers, architects, doctors, managers, university teachers

• CLASS 2

Intermediate occupations, including intermediate professionals and administrators, e.g. lower-grade professionals, administrators and managers, supervisors and higher-grade technicians, shopkeepers, farmers, actors, musicians, teachers

• CLASS 3 N (a)

Skilled occupations (Non-manual), including non-manual workers, e.g. clerks, sales and rank-and-file workers, small proprietors and self-employed artisans, draughtsmen, lower-grade technicians and foremen, etc.

Working Class/ “Blue Collar”

• CLASS 3 M (b)

Skilled occupations (Manual), including skilled manual workers in industry, e.g. electricians, coalminers, etc.

• CLASS 4

Partly skilled occupations, including semi-skilled workers, e.g. milk rounds men, telephone operators, fishermen, farm workers, semi-skilled workers in industry, etc.

• CLASS 5

Unskilled occupations, including unskilled workers, e.g. night watchers, collectors, cleaners, labourers

Occupation is related to many differences in people’s access to life chances in such areas as education, health, money spending patterns, leisure style and working conditions. For example, in the area of status differences at work classes 1 and 2 enjoy the best terms and conditions of employment. Their holidays are more than 15 days, they are freer in choosing the better holiday time, and they may enjoy such things as being always paid sick pay and higher pensions. There are no pay reductions for lateness.