Manual for Students
.pdfidentity; a change by a speaker (or writer) from one language or language variety to another one. Code-switching can take place in a conversation when one speaker uses one language and the other speaker answers in a different language. A person may start speaking one language and then change to another one in the middle of their speech, or sometimes even in the middle of a sentence.
41.Cognitive Labeling Theory – a theory of emotions that holds that your emotional feelings begin with the occurrence of an event; then you respond physiologically; then you interpret the arousal (you in effect decide what it is you’re feeling); and then you experience (give a name to) the emotion.
42.Coherence – the meaning created in the minds of speakers / readers by the situated inferences they make based on the words they hear / read.
43.Cohesion – the semantic ties between units of language in a
text.
44.Cohesive Device – linguistic element like a pronoun, demonstrative, conjunction, that encodes semantic continuity across a stretch of text.
45.Collectivist Culture – a culture in which the group’s goals are given greater importance than the individual’s and in which, for example, benevolence, tradition, and conformity are given special emphasis. Opposed to Individualistic Culture.
46.Color Communication – the use of color to communicate different meanings; each culture seems to define the meanings colors communicate somewhat differently. Use colors (in clothing and in room decor, for example) to convey desired meanings.
47.Communication – (1) the process or act of communicating;
(2)the actual message or messages sent and received; (3) the study of the processes involved in the sending and receiving of messages.
48.Communication Apprehension – fear or anxiety of communicating. Manage your own communication apprehension through cognitive restructuring, thematic desensitization, and acquisition of the necessary communication skills. In addition, prepare and practice for relevant communication situations, focus on success, familiarize yourself with the communication situations
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important to you, and try to relax. In cases of extreme communication apprehension, seek professional help.
49.Communicative Competence – knowledge of the appropriate style of language to use in a given situation.
50.Communication Network – the range of persons that members of a group communicate with. In any group some members communicate more frequently with one another than with others, depending on their relationships, frequency of contact etc. Communication networks may be studied as part of the study of bilingualism and diglossia as well as in studies of second language acquisition, since language learning and language use may depend upon both the frequency of use of a language as well as on whom one uses it to communicate with.
51.Communication Ritual – a set form of systematic interactions that take place on a regualr basis.
52.Communication Style – the metamessage that contextualizes how listeners are expected to accept and interpret verbal messages.
53.Communication Strategy – a way used to express a meaning in a second or foreign language, by a learner who has a limited command of the language. In trying to communicate, e learner may have to make up for a lack of knowledge of grammar or vocabulary. e.g., a learner may not be able to say It‘s against the law to park here and so he / she may say This place, cannot park.
For handkerchief a learner could say a cloth for my nose, and for apartment complex the learner could say building. The use of paraphrase and other communication strategies characterize the interlanguage of some language learners.
54.Competence – “Language competence” is a speaker’s ability to use the language; it is a knowledge of the elements and rules of the language. “Communication competence” generally refers both to knowledge about communication and also to the ability to engage in communication effectively.
55.Сompliance-gaining Strategies – behaviors designed to gain the agreement of others, to persuade others to do as you wish. Widely used compliance-gaining strategies include expressions of liking, promise, threat, expertise, altercasting, esteem manipulation, and moral appeals.
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56.Compound Bilingual – a bilingual who has acquired his two languages in the same settings and uses them interchangeably in the same settings.
57.Compromise Style – a style of interaction for an intercultural couple in which both partners give up some part of their own cultural habits and beliefs to minimize cross-cultural differences. (Compare with
Consensus Style, Obliteration Style, Submission Style).
58.Confidence – a quality of interpersonal effectiveness; a comfortable, at-ease feeling in interpersonal communication situations.
59.Confirmation – a communication pattern that acknowledges another person’s presence and indicates an acceptance of this person, this person’s definition of self, and the relationship as defined or viewed by this other person. Opposed to rejection and disconfirmation. To confirm, acknowledge the presence and the contributions of the other person and at the same time avoid any sign of ignoring or avoiding the other person.
60.Conflict – a disagreement or difference of opinion; a form of competition in which one person tries to bring a rival to surrender; a situation in which one person’s behaviors are directed at preventing something or at interfering with or harming another individual. See also
Interpersonal Conflict.
61.Confrontation – direct resistance, often to the dominant forces.
62.Congruence – a condition in which both verbal and non-verbal behaviors reinforce each other.
63.Connotation – the associations evoked by a word in the mind of the hearer / reader; the feeling or emotional aspect of meaning, generally viewed as consisting of the evaluative (for example, good-bad), potency (strong-weak), and activity (fast-slow) dimensions. Opposed to
Denotation.
64.Conscious Competence – one of the four levels of intercultural communication competence, the practice of international, analytic thinking and learning.
65.Conscious Incompetence – one of the four levels of intercultural communication competence, the awareness that one is not having success but the inability to figure out why.
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66.Consensus Style – a style of interaction for an international couple in which partners deal with cross-cultural differences by negotiating their relationship.
67.Consistency – a process that influences you to maintain balance in your Perception of messages or people; a process that makes you see what you expect to see and feel uncomfortable when your perceptions run contrary to expectations. Recognize the human tendency to seek and to see consistency even where it does not exist – for example, to see friends as all positive and enemies as all negative.
68.Contact – the first stage in Relationship Development consisting of “perceptual contact” (you see or hear the person) and “interactional contact” (you talk with the person).
69.Contact Cultures – сultural groups in which people tend to stand close together and touch frequently when they interact – for example, cultural groups in SouthAmerica, the Middle East, and Southern Europe.
70.Сontent and Relationship Dimensions – two aspects to which messages may refer: the world external to both speaker and listener (content) and the connections existing between the individuals who are interacting (relationship).
71.Context of Communication – the physical, psychological, social, and temporal environment in which communication takes place. Assess the context in which messages are communicated and interpret the messages accordingly; avoid seeing messages as independent of context.
72.Context of Culture – the historical knowledge, the beliefs, attitudes, values shared by members of a discourse community, and that contribute to the meaning of their verbal exchanges.
73.Context of Situation – the immediate physical, spatial, temporal, social environment in which verbal exchanges take place.
74.Context-dependent – characteristic of oral exchanges which depend very much for their meaning on the context of situation and the context of culture of the participants.
75.Context-reduced – characteristic of essay-type writing. Because readers are far removed in time and space from the author, the text itself must be able to make meaning without access to its original context of production.
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76.Contextualization Cues – a term coined by anthropologist John Gumperz to indicate the verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal signs that help speakers understand the full meaning of their interlocutors’ utterances in context.
77.Contrastive Analysis – comparison of the structures of languageA and language B, for the purpose of predicting errors made by learners of language B and designing teaching materials that will take account of the anticipated errors.
78.Сonversation – two-person communication, usually following five stages: opening, feedforward, business, feedback, and closing.
79.Conversational Management – the management of the way in which messages are exchanged in conversation. Respond to conversational turn cues from the other person, and use conversational cues to signal your own desire to exchange (or maintain) speaker or listener roles.
80.Conversational Maxims – rules that are followed in conversation to ensure that the goal of the conversation is achieved.
Because these maxims differ from one culture to another, be sure you understand the maxims operating in the culture in which you’re communicating.
81.Conversational Style – a person’s way of talking in the management of conversations.
82.Conversational Turns – the process of passing the speaker and listener roles during conversation. Become sensitive to and respond appropriately to conversational turn cues, such as turn-maintaining, turn-yielding, turnrequesting, and turn-denying cues.
83.Cooperation – an interpersonal process by which individuals work together for a common end; the pooling of efforts to produce a mutually desired outcome.
84.Cooperative Principle – a term coined by the philosopher Paul Grice to characterize the basic expectation that participants in informational exchanges will cooperate with one another by contributing appropriately and in a timely manner to the conversation.
85.Coordinate Bilingual – a bilingual who has learned his two languages in separate settings.
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86.Co-text – the linguistic environment in which a word is used within a text.
87.Credibility – the degree to which you see a person to be believable; the major dimensions of credibility are competence, character, and charisma (dynamism).
88.Creole – a language claimed to have descended from a pidgin, having become the native language (first language) of the children of a group of pidgin speakers; the form of language that emerges when speakers of several languages are in long-lasting contact with each other; creole has characteristics of both languages.
89.Critical Thinking – the process of logically evaluating reasons and evidence and reaching a judgment on the basis of this analysis.
90.Cross-Cultural Analysis – analysis of data from two or more different cultural groups in order to determine if generalization made about members of one culture are also true of members of other cultures. Cross-cultural research is an important part of sociolinguistics, since it is often important to know if generalization made about one language group reflect the culture of that group or are universal.
91.Cross-Cultural Communication – an exchange of ideas, info etc. Between persons from different cultural backgrounds. Each participant may interpret the other‘s speech according to his or her own cultural conventions and expectations (conversational rules). If the cultural conventions of the speakers are widely different, misinterpretations and misunderstandings can easily arise, even resulting in a total breakdown of communication. This has been shown by research into real-life situations, such as job interviews, doctorpatient encounters etc.
92.Cross-Cultural Training – training people to become familiar with other cultural norms and to improve their interactions with people of different domestic and international cultures.
93.Cultural Adaptation – a process by which individuals learn the rules and customs of new cultural contexts.
94.CulturalAssimilation – the process by which a persons culture is given up and he or she takes on the values and beliefs of another culture; as when, for example, an immigrant gives up his or her native culture to become a member of this new adopted culture.
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95.Cultural Deprivation (also Cultural Disadvantage) – the theory that some children particularly those from lower social and economic backgrounds lack certain home experiences and that this may lead to learning difficulties in school. E.g. children from homes which lack books or educational games and activities to stimulate thought and language development may not perform well in school. Since many factors could explain why some children do not perform well in school, this theory is an insufficient explanation for differences in children‘s learning abilities.
96.Cultural Display – signs that communicate one’s cultural identification; for example, clothing or religious jewelry.
97.Cultural Display Rules – rules that identify what are and what are not appropriate forms of expression for members of the culture.
98.Cultural Identity – bureaucratically or self-ascribed membership in a specific culture.
99.Cultural Imperialism – domination through the spread of cultural products.
100.Cultural Literacy – term coined by literary scholar E.D.Hirsch to refer to the body of knowledge that is presumably shared by all members of a given culture.
101.Cultural Pluralism – a situation in which an individual or group has more that one set of cultural beliefs, values and attitudes. The teaching of a foreign language or programs in bilingual education are sometimes said to encourage cultural pluralism.An educational program which aims to develop cultural pluralism is sometimes referred to as multicultural education, e.g. a program designed to teach about different ethnic groups in a country.
102.Cultural Relativism – the theory that a culture can only be understood in its own terms. This means that standards, attitudes and beliefs from one culture should not be used in the study or description of another culture. According to this theory there are no universal cultural beliefs or values or these are not regarded as important. Cultural relativism has been a part of the discussions of Linguistic Relativity and Cultural
Deprivation.
103.Cultural Rules – rules that are specific to a given culture.
Respond to messages according to the cultural rules of the sender;
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in order to avoid, misunderstanding others’ intended meanings, avoid interpreting the messages of others exclusively through the perspective of your own culture.
104.Cultural Time – the meanings given to the ways time is treated in a particular culture.
105.Cultural Studies – studies that focus on dynamic, everyday representations of cultural struggles. Cultural studies is multidisciplinary in nature and is committees to social change.
106.Cultural Texts – сultural artifacts (magazines, T.V.programs, movies and s on) that convey cultural norms, values, and beliefs.
107.Сultural Values – the worldview of a cultural group and its set of deeply held beliefs.
108.Culture – (1) membership in a discourse community that shares a common social space and history, and a common system of standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating, and acting. (2) The discourse community itself. (3) The system of standards itself; the total set of beliefs, values, attitudes, customs and behaviors of the members of a particular society.
109.Culture Shock – strong feelings of discomfort, fear, or insecurity which a person may have when they enter another culture. E.g. when a person moves to live in a foreign country, he may have a period of culture shock until he becomes familiar with the new culture.
110.Decoder – something that takes a message in one form (for example, sound waves) and translates it into another form (for example, nerve impulses) from which meaning can be formulated. In human communication, the decoder is the auditory mechanism; in electronic communication, the decoder is, for example, the telephone earpiece. Decoding is the process of extracting a message from a code – for example, translating speech sounds into nerve impulses. See also
Encoder.
111.Defensiveness – an attitude of an individual or an atmosphere in a group characterized by threats, fear, and domination; messages evidencing evaluation, control, strategy, neutrality, superiority, and certainty are thought to lead to defensiveness. Opposed to
Supportiveness.
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112.Deictic – element of speech that points in a certain direction as viewed from the perspective of the speaker, for example, here, there, today, coming, going.
113.Deixis – process by which language indexes the physical, temporal, and social location of the speaker at the moment of utterance.
114.Denial – the process by which you deny your emotions to yourself or to others; one of the obstacles to the expression of emotion.
115.Denotatlon – the basic conceptual meaning of a word; the objective or descriptive meaning of a word; the meaning you’d find in a dictionary. Opposed to Connotation.
116.Depth – the degree to which the inner personality – the inner core of an individual – is penetrated in interpersonal interaction.
117.Deterioration – the stage of a relationship during which the connecting bonds between the partners weaken and the partners begin drifting apart.
118.Dialogic – based on dialog.
119.Diaspora – a massive migration often caused by war, famine, or persecution that results in the dispersal of a unified group.
120.Diffusion – anthropological concept that refers to the process by which stereotypes are formed by extending the characteristic of one person or group of persons to all, for example, all Americans are individualists, all Chinese are collectivists.
121.Diglossia – a situation in which a more prestigious form of a language is used in “High” functions and a relatively less prestigious, colloquial form is used in “Low” functions.
122.Direct Speech – speech in which the speaker’s intentions are stated clearly and directly. Use direct requests and responses
(1)to encourage compromise, (2) to acknowledge responsibility for your own feelings and desires, and (3) to state your own desires honestly so as to encourage honesty, openness, and supportiveness in others.
123.Disclaimer – statement that asks the listener to receive what you say without its reflecting negatively on you. Use disclaimers when you think your future messages might offend your listeners. But avoid using them if they may not be accepted by your listeners; that is, if your disclaimers may raise the very doubts you wish to put to rest.
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124.Disconfirmation – the process by which someone ignores or denies a person’s right even to define himself or herself. Opposed to
Rejection and Confirmation.
125.Discourse – this term, with a capital D, coined by linguist James Gee, refers, not only to ways of speaking, reading and writing, but also of behaving, interacting, thinking, valuing, that are characteristic of specific discourse communities; the ways in which language is actually used by particular communities of people, in particular contexts, for particular purposes.
126.Discourse – the process of language use, whether it be spoken, written or printed, that includes writers, texts, and readers within a sociocultural context of meaning production and reception; d. text.
127.Discourse Accent – a speaking or writing style that bears the mark of a discourse community’s ways of using language.
128.Discourse Community – a social group that has a broadly agreed set of common public goals and purposes in its use of spoken and written language; cf. speech community.
129.Discrimination – behaviors resulting from stereotypes or prejudice that cause some people to be denied equal participation or rights based on cultural group membership, such as race.
130.Dissolution – the termination or end of an interpersonal relationship. If the relationship ends: (1) Break the loneliness-depression cycle; (2) take time out to get to know yourself as an individual;
(3)bolster your self-esteem; (4) remove or avoid symbols that may remind you of your past relationship and may make you uncomfortable; (5) seek the support of friends and relatives; and
(6)avoid repeating negative patterns.
131.Diversity – the equality of being different.
132.Diversity Training – the training meant to facilitate intercultural communication among various gender, ethnic and racial groups in the United States.
133.Downward Communication – сommunication sent from the higher levels of a hierarchy to the lower levels – for example, messages sent by managers to workers, or from deans to faculty members.
134.Dyadic Effect – the tendency for the behaviors of one person to stimulate similar behaviors in the other interactant; often used to refer
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