Manual for Students
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Ward C. The Psychology of Culture Shock / Claire Ward, Susanne Bochner, Allan Furnham. – East Sussex : MIT Press, 2001. – 356 p.
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-GLOSSARY-
Listed here are definitions of important terms of interpersonal communication and theory of language contact – many of them peculiar or unique to these disciplines. These definitions and statements of skills should make new or difficult terms a bit easier to understand and should help place the skills in context. All boldface terms within the definitions appear as separate entries in the glossary.
1.Acculturation – the process of internalizing the culture of a discourse community; the process by which your culture is modified or changed through contact with or exposure to another culture.
2.Act of Identity – way in which speakers display their cultural stance toward their membership in a specific culture, and toward the culture of others through their use of language.
3.Active Listening – the process by which a listener expresses his or her understanding of the speaker’s total message, including the verbal and non-verbal, the thoughts and feelings. Listen actively by paraphrasing the speakers meanings, expressing understanding and acceptance of the speaker’s feelings, and asking questions to check the accuracy of your understanding, thereby encouraging the speaker to explore further his or her feelings and thoughts and increase meaningful sharing.
4.Adaptors – non-verbal behaviors that, when engaged in either in private or in public, serve some kind of need and occur in their entirety – for example, scratching until an itch is relieved. Avoid adaptors that interfere with effective communication and reveal discomfort or anxiety.
5.Adjustment (principle of) – the principle of verbal interaction that claims that effective communication depends on the extent to which communicators share the same system of signals. Expand the common areas between you and significant others; learn one another’s systems of communication signals and meanings in order to increase understanding and interpersonal communication effectiveness.
6.Adstratum – language entering into a linguistic alliance in
Sprachbund situation.
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7.Affect Displays – movements of the face and body that convey emotional meanings such as anger, fear, and surprise.
8.Affirmation – the communication of support and approval. Use affirmation to express your supportiveness and to raise esteem.
9.Alter-adaptors – body movements you make in response to your current interactions; for example, crossing your arms over your chest when someone unpleasant approaches or moving closer to someone you like. Become aware of and control your own alter-adaptors; become aware of the adaptors of others, but be cautious and tentative about attributing meanings to these adaptors.
10.Ambiguity – the condition in which a message may be interpreted as having more than one meaning. To reduce ambiguity, use language that is clear and specific, explain terms and references that may not be clear to the listener, and ask if your message is clear.
11.Apprehension. See Communication Apprehension.
12.Appropriateness – characteristic of linguistic and social practices that meet the expectations of native speakers within their given culture.
13.Appropriation – process by which members of one discourse community make the language and the culture of another their own.
14.Arbitrariness – the random nature of the fit between a linguistic sign and the object that it refers to, for example, the word ‘rose’ does not look like a rose.
15.Argumentativeness – a willingness to argue for a point of view, to speak your mind. Cultivate your argumentativeness – your willingness to argue for what you believe – by, for example, treating disagreements as objectively as possible, reaffirming the other, stressing equality, expressing interest in the others position, and allowing the other person to save face. Distinguished from Verbal
Aggressiveness.
16.Assertiveness – a willingness to stand up for your rights but with respect for the rights of others. To increase assertiveness, analyze the assertive and nonassertlve behaviors of yourself and others, re hearse assertive behaviors, – and communicate assertively in appropriate situations.
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17.Assimilation – a process in which a group gradually gives up its own language, culture and system of values and takes on those of another group with a different Language, Culture and system of values, through a period of interaction.
18.Asymmetrically – the lack of a perfect fit between a sign and its referent, between signifier and signified, for example, the sign ‘rose’ always means more than a flower of a certain shape and smell.
19.Attention – the process of responding to a stimulus or stimuli; usually some consciousness of responding is implied.
20.Attitude – a predisposition to respond for or against an object, person, or position.
21.Attraction – the process by which one individual is emotionally drawn to another and finds that person satisfying to be with.
22.Attractiveness – a person’s visual appeal and / or pleasantness in personality.
23.Attribution – the processes involved in assigning causation or motivation to a person’s behavior. In identifying the motivation for behaviors, examine consensus, consistency, distinctiveness, and controllability. Generally, low consensus, high consistency, low distinctiveness, and high controllability identify internally motivated behavior; high consensus, low consistency, high distinctiveness, and low controllability identify externally motivated behavior.
24.Avoidance – an unproductive Interpersonal Conflict strategy in which you take mental or physical flight from the actual conflict.
Instead, take an active role in analyzing problems and in proposing workable solutions.
25.Balkanism – structural feature shared by the majority of contemporary Balkan languages.
26.Barbarism – violation of the standard language by not fully competent speakers of the language (from Greek barbaros: outsider).
27.Barriers to Intercultural Communication – physical or psychological factors that prevent or hinder effective communication.
Such barriers include ignoring differences between yourself and the culturally different, ignoring differences among the culturally different, ignoring differences in meaning, violating cultural rules and customs, and evaluating differences negatively.
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28.Belief – сonfidence in the existence or truth of something; conviction.
29.Bicultural – a person who knows the social habits, beliefs, customs etc. of two different social groups can be described as bicultural.A distinction is made between biculturalism and bilingualism. E.g. a person may be able to speak two languages, but may not know how to act according to the social patterns of the second or foreign language community. This person can be described as bilingual but not as bicultural.
30.Bilingual – a person who is able to produce grammatical sentences in more than one language.
31.Blame – an unproductive Interpersonal Conflict strategy in which we attribute the cause of the conflict to the other person or devote our energies to discovering who is the cause and avoid talking about the issues causing the conflict. Avoid using blame to win an argument, especially with those with whom you are in close relationships.
32.Calque – see Loan Translation.
33.Censorship – restrictions imposed on individuals’ right to produce, distribute, or receive various communications.
34.Certainty – an attitude of closed-mindedness that creates defensiveness among communicators. Opposed to Provisionalism.
35.Channel – the vehicle or medium through which signals are sent; for example, the vocal-auditory channel.
36.Chronemics – the study of the communicative nature of time – how a person’s or culture’s treatment of time reveals something about the person or culture. Often divided into psychological and cultural time.
37.Civil Inattention – polite ignoring of others (after a brief sign of awareness) so as not to invade their privacy.
38.Closed-mindedness – an unwillingness to receive certain communication messages.
39.Code – formal system of communication; a set of symbols used to translate a message from one form to another.
40.Code-Switching – verbal strategy by which bilingual or bidialectal speakers change linguistic code within the same speech event as a sign of cultural solidarity or distance, and as an act of (cultural)
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