Manual for Students
.pdfwant honest answers from them. Much of the discussion involved talking about interactions African-American students had “with EuropeanAmerican students and faculty members”. On several occasions, the African-American students talked about being excluded from activities. For example, … [they talked about] being told not to pledge during a European-American sorority rush, being the only African-American member of a small class at the university and the only person in the class not invited to a party thrown by another classmate. Still others talked about what they perceived to be racist comments made during lectures by some faculty members [ibid., p. 424].
Dace observes that in most cases the White students suggested that these experiences were not “reality” and asked the AfricanAmerican students to “prove” that they had actually experienced racism. People who have not often experienced feelings of powerlessness or been discriminated against have a hard time recognizing their impact.
Collier’s second component of intercultural alliances has to do with the impact of history: Intercultural friends recognize that people from historically powerful groups view history differently than do those who belong to less powerful groups.As we learned in previous chapters, history often plays an important part in intercultural interactions.
History also plays a part in Black-White relationships. We are often struck by how, in discussions about race in our classes, White students go to great lengths to affirm that they are not racist, often telling stories about friends and family members – who, unlike them, are racist. They seem to want to be absolved of past or present responsibilities where race was concerned.And Whites expect persons of color to communicate in ways that are friendly, comfortable, and absolving. In this case, true dialogue for Whites involves a genuine commitment to listening, to not being defensive, and to recognizing the historical contexts that impact us all. True intercultural friends accept rather than question others’ experiences, particularly when historical inequities and power issues are involved. They recognize the importance of historical power differentials and affirm others’ cultural experiences even when this calls into question their own worldviews.
Collier’s third component of intercultural alliances has to do with orientations of affirmation: Intercultural friends value and appreciate
391
differences and are committed to the relationship even when they encounter difficulties and misunderstandings.
Beverly Tatum gives some guidelines for people who want to engage in cross-cultural dialogue. She suggests that they look for role models – those who are effective intercultural communicators. She notes that you might not be able to influence public policy or promote grandiose schemes to facilitate intercultural dialogue, but you can influence the people around you to adopt the principles of effective intercultural communication [14, p. 202].
Building Coalitions. As we have emphasized throughout this book, there are many identities and contexts that give meaning to who you really are. That is, your identities of gender, sexual orientation, race, region, religion, age, social class, and so on gain specific meaning and force in different contexts. Coalitions can arise from these multiple identities. There are many good examples, such as the Seeds of Peace project, which brings together Jewish and Palestinian young people to work toward peace and harmony. Other local coalitions work to promote dialogue between Blacks and Whites, and between gays and straights.
Some contexts that arise in the future may cause you to rethink many of your identities. The rhetoric that people use to mobilize coalitions may speak to you in various ways.As you strive to build better intercultural relations, you may need to transcend some of your identities, as the workers in Hawaii did, or you may reinforce other identities. These shifting identities allow you to build coalitions among seemingly different peoples, to foster positive intercultural relationships for a better world.
Coalitions, which are built of multiple identities, are never easy to build. In the process, you may find that some of your own identities feel neglected or injured. Part of the process is the commitment to work through these emotional blows, rather than simply withdrawing to the safety of older identities. Work your way to a richer, more meaningful life by navigating between safety and stability, and change.
Forgiveness and Transformation. Sometimes the cultural divide simply seems too huge. Sometimes there are grievances perpetrated by one cultural group upon another or by one individual on another that are so brutal as to make the suggestions listed above sound hollow and idealistic. Although limited and problematic, forgiveness is an option
392
for promoting intercultural understanding and reconciliation. As we noted, forgiveness is more than a simple rite of religious correctness; it requires a deep intellectual and emotional commitment during moments of great pain. It also requires a letting go, a moving on, a true transformation of spirit. Dean Murphy, writing in the New York Times, reports how scholars, leaders, and other individuals live out the concept of forgiveness. One example is Archbishop Desmond Tutu, the Nobel Laureate and chairman of South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, and an advocate of forgiveness. He puts it in the context of the African concept of ubuntu – that a person is only a person through other people. Again, the importance of human connection and relationships emerges. Tutu says that forgiveness can be seen as an act of self-interest, because forgivers are released from the bonds that hold them captive to the forgiven. And many have stressed this aspect
– that people cannot be consumed by the wrongs that others have done to them, because then their oppressors have won. According to civil rights advocate Roger Wilkins, “If you are consumed by rage, even at a terrible wrong, you have been reduced” [9, p. 429]. Religious and medical professionals also advocate the healing benefits of forgiveness.
Forgiveness has been likened to a train. People get on the train but must make various stops before forgiveness becomes a way off. The trick is not to miss your stop. And perhaps we might remember these cautionary words from Philip Yancy, an award-winning Christian author who writes about grace and forgiveness in the face of atrocities and brutality: “The only thing harder than forgiveness is the alternative” [6, p. 176].
8.3 What the Future Holds
We live in exciting times. The world is changing rapidly, but not necessarily in a positive direction for intercultural relations. We see a move toward larger political entities, such as the European Union (EU). This relatively new political giant has even adopted a single currency, the euro. The population and economic power of the EU surpasses that of the United States, and the EU has standardized many regulations among its member states. Yet the unification of much of Europe has not led to a
393
strong European identity. Instead, there has been a retreat to earlier, regional identities. France offers one example of such a retreat, as the national identity is challenged by the resurgence of regional identities conquered in the past [5].
The appearance of regional dictionaries, the upsurge in folk celebrations, and the continual resurgence of small subnational identities has the potential to diversify Europe. And, of course, there is the ongoing struggle between fundamentalist Islamic groups and many national governments. The struggle has been variously characterized as a clash of civilizations, a struggle between religions, and an uprising of the Middle East against the cultural imperialism of the West. In any case, it is hard to know how to view this struggle from an intercultural communication perspective.
There are no easy answers to what the future holds. But it is important to think dialectically about these issues, to see the dialectical tensions at work throughout the world. For example, a fractured, fragmented Europe is in dialectical tension with a unified Europe. We can see the history / past / present / future dialectic at work here. The fragmented Europe returns to its historical roots, but the unified Europe represents a forward-looking attempt to deal with the global economy. As a unifying force, a global economy also creates fragmentation.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we focused on the outlook for intercultural communication. The individual components of intercultural communication competence include motivation, knowledge, attitudes, behavior and skills. The levels of competence are unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence and unconscious competence. Competence has interpretive and critical contextual components, and contexts are both dynamic and multiple. One approach to improving intercultural relations recognizes both individual and contextual elements of competence: entering into dialogue, building alliances and coalitions, and, finally, recognizing the importance of forgiveness and transformation.
394
PRACTICE
ØAnswer the Following Questions
–In what ways is the notion of intercultural competence helpful? In what ways is it limiting?
–How can you be an interpersonal ally? How do you know if you are being an ally?
–How might you better assess your unconscious competence and unconscious incompetence?
–How does your own social position (gender, class, age, and so on) influence your intercultural communication competence? Does this competence change from one context to another?
ØGlobal Trends and Intercultural Communication. Identify and list global trends that are likelyto influence intercultural communication in the future. Reflect on the contexts and dialectics that might help you better understand these trends.
ØRoadblocks to Communication. Identify and list some of the biggest roadblocks to successful intercultural communication in the future. In what ways will the increasingly global economy be a positive or a negative factor in intercultural communication?
ØStrategies for Becoming Allies. In a dialogue with someone who is culturally different from you, generate a list of ways that each of you might become an ally of the other. Note the specific communication strategies that will help you become each other’s allies.
REFERENCES
1.Bennett M. J. Towards Ethnorelativism: ADevelopmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity / Melvin J. Bennett // Education for the Intercultural Experience. – 1993. – P. 21 – 72.
2.Black J. S. So You’re Coming Home / Jilson S. Black, Heins B. Gregersen. – San Diego : HarperCollins, 1999.
3.Coeyman M. The Rush to Rewrite History / Melville Coeyman //
395
Christian Science Monitor : [Electronic resource]. – Internet Access : http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1016/pl13sl-lekt.html.
4.Collier M. J.AComparison of ConversationsAmong and Between Domestic Culture Groups: How Intraand Intercultural Competencies Vary / Mary J. Collier // Communication Quarterly. – 1988. – No. 36. – P. 122 – 144.
5.Geertz C. The Interpretation of Culture / Clifford Geertz. – New York, 1973. – 403 p.
6.Henderson M. Forgiveness: Breaking The Chain of Bate / Mark Henderson. – Wilsonville : MIT Press, 1999. – 283 p.
7.Kealey D. J.AStudy of Cross-Cultural Effectiveness: Theoretical Issues, Practical Applications / Dan Kealey // International Journal of Intercultural Relations. – 1989. – No. 13. – P. 387 – 427.
8.Koester J. The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication Effectiveness / Jack Koester, Mark Olebe // International Journal of International Relations. – 1988. – No. 12. – P. 233 – 246.
9.Martin J. N. Intercultural Communication in Contexts / Judith N. Martin, Tomas Nakayama. – New York : McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2000. – P. 264 – 282.
10.Martin J. N. ReentryTraining for Intercultural Sojourners / Judith N. Martin, Tom Harrell // Handbook for Intercultural Training. – London : Thousand Oaks, 1996. – P. 307 – 326.
11.Maruyama M. Toward a Cultural Futurology / Magoroh Maruyama. – Minneapolis : MU Press, 1970. – 304 p.
12.Rosen S. L. Japan as Other: Orientalism and Cultural Conflict / Susan L. Rosen // Intercultural Communication : [Electronic resource]. – Internet Access :
http://www.immi.se/intercultural.
13.Ruben B. D. Behavioral Assessment of Communication Competence and the Prediction of Cross-Cultural Adaptation / Brent D. Ruben, Dan J. Kealey // International Journal of Intercultural Relations. – 1979. – No. 3. – P. 15 – 47.
14.Tatum B. Why Are All The Black Kids Sitting Together In The Cafeteria? / Beverly Tatum. – New York : MIT Press, 1997. – P. 193 – 206.
15.Wendt J. A Way to Improve Communication / Jillian Wendt // Communication Education. – 1984. – No. 33. – P. 397 – 401.
396
-CONCLUSION-
Theory of Communication: Interdisciplinary Approach as an additional reference guide for students of linguistics represents an overview of some of the general issues arising when one studies linguistic patterns across languages. It considers communication as one of the phenomena resulting from the process of intercultural cooperation among nations – active users of these languages.
The work discusses the concept of culture in linguistics, possible interconnection among language and culture, situations of language and culture contact; the notion of language community; varieties of language; the notion of speech as social interaction, etc.
Starting the work on the manual we realized that it could become a work of diverse and wide ranging nature, both interdisciplinary and intercultural in approach. Like many other intercultural study areas it might provoke arguments about its precise boundaries, methodological procedures and essential aims. Thus, the main objective of the manual has become to help you begin to think dialectically, to begin to see the many contradictions and tensions at work in the world. Understanding these contradictions and tensions is the key to understanding the events themselves. We acknowledge that there are no easy answers to the challenge of intercultural communication, but we have written this manual in the hope that it will be of informing and stimulating nature for the newcomer in the fields of Communicative and Cross-Cultural Linguistics, as well as provide a theoretical framework within which the findings of Communicative Linguistics may be related to the theory of language structure (Theoretical Linguistics). We hope that this book will give you the groundwork to begin your own intercultural journeys.
397
-SUPPLEMENTARYREADING-
Adler R. B. Understanding Human Communication / Ronald B. Adler, George Rodman. – Chicago : Holt, Rinehart and Winston Press, 1991. – 254 p.
Appel R. Language Contact and Bilingualism / Rene Appel, Pieter Muysken. – London : Edward Arnold Press, 1987. – 315 p.
Austin J. L. How to Do Things with Words / John L. Austin. – Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 2005. – 403 p.
Bach K. Linguistic Communication and Speech Acts / Kent Bach, Robert M. Harnish. – Cambridge : MIT Press, 1979. – 276 p.
Baldwin J. Conceptualization of Culture / Jack Baldwin, Sheryl Lindsley. – Tempe : Arizona State University Press, 1994. – 347 p.
Becker S. L. Discovering Mass Communication / Stephen L. Becker, Craig L. Roberts. – New York : Harper Collins, 1992. – 355 p.
Bell A. Language Style asAudience Design /Allan Bell. – Language in Society. – No. 13 (2). – 1984. – P. 145 – 204.
Berry J. W. Comparative Studies of Acculturative Stress / Jack W. Berry, Umberto Kim, Tim Minde, Dirk Mok // International Migration Review. – 1987. – No. 21. – P. 491 – 511.
Bickerton D. Roots of Language / Derek Bickerton. – Ann Arbor : Karoma, 1981. – 318 p.
Bittner J. R. Mass Communication / John R. Bittner. – Boston : Allyn and Bacon, 1996. – 409 p.
Blackburn S. Implicature / Simon Blackburn // The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. – Oxford, 1996. – P. 188 – 189.
Blakemore D. Understanding Utterances / David Blakemore. – Oxford : Blackwell, 1992. – 389 p.
Brislin R. Understanding Culture’s Influence on Behavior / Richard Brislin. – Belmont : MIT Press, 1999. – 398 p.
Brown P. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage / Penelope Brown, Stephen C. Levinson. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1978. – 475 p.
Burgoon J. K. Non-Verbal Communication: The Unspoken Dialogue / Jack K. Burgoon, Dirk B. Buller, William G. Woodall. – New York : Columbia University Press, 1996. – 368 p.
398
Cappella J. Theories of Human Communication / Jack Cappella // Communication Theory. – V.1 – 2. – 1991. – P. 165 – 171.
Carroll J. B. Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf / John Bissell Carroll. – Cambridge : MIT Press, 1956. – 507 p.
Carston R. Thoughts and Utterances: The Pragmatics of Explicit Communication / Robyn Carston. – Oxford : Blackwell, 2002. – 368 p.
Chambers J. K. Sociolinguistic Theory: Linguistic Variation and its Social Significance / Jack K. Chambers. – Oxford : Basil Blackwell, 1995. – 487 p.
Clyne M. Dynamics of Language Contact / Michel Clyne. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2003. – 396 p.
Collier M. J. Cultural Identity: An Interpretative Perspective / Mary J. Collier, Mark Thomas // Theories in Cultural Communication. – London : Newbury Park, 1988. – P. 125 – 136.
Comrie B. Language Universals and LinguisticTypology: Syntax and Morphology / Bernard Comrie. – Oxford : Basil Blackwell, 1989. – 365 p.
Corder P. IntroducingApplied Linguistics / Pit Corder. – London : Penguin Books, 1973. – P. 19 – 27.
Cornell S. Ethnicity and Race: Making Identities in a Changing World / Sam Cornell, Dirk Hartmann. – London : Thousand Oaks, 1998. – 357 p.
Craig R. T. Communication Theory as a Field / Robert T. Craig // Communication Theory. – V. 9. – 1999. – P. 119 – 161.
Crystal D. Linguistics / David Crystal. – London : Penguin Books, 1971. – P. 158 – 166.
Cutting J. Pragmatics and Discourse / Joe Cutting. – London : Routledge, 2002. – 419 p.
Desberg D. Language as an Aspect of Cultural Behavior / Daniel Desberg // Teaching Foreign Languages in the Modern World. – Washington : The Catholic University of America Press, 1961. – P. 415 – 429.
Detweiler R. A. Intercultural Interaction and the Categorization Process: A Conceptual Analysis and Behavioral Outcome / Richard A. Detweiler // International Journal of Intercultural Relations. – 1980. – No. 4. – P. 275 – 295.
399
DeVito J. A. Human Communication: The Basic Course / Joseph A. DeVito. – New York : Harper Collins, 1994. – 386 p.
Dijk T. A. van. Text and Context. Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse / Teun A. van Dijk. – London : Longman, 1977. – 413 p.
Discourse Reader / Ed. by Adam Jaworski and Nikolas Coupland. – London : Routledge, 2001. – 478 p.
Eckert P. Style and Sociolinguistic Variation / Penelope Eckert, John R. Rickford. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2001. – 296 p.
Edwards J. Borrowing, Interference and Code-Switching // Multilinguialism. – Harmondsworth : Routledge, 1995. – P. 72 – 78.
Ekman P. Universals and Cultural Differences in the Judgments of Facial Expressions of Emotion / Paul Ekman, William V. Friesen // Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. – 1987. – No. 53. – P. 712 – 717.
Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics / Ed. by Ronald E. Asher. – Oxford : Pergamon Press, 1994. – 679 p.
Ervin-Tripp S. M. Identification and Bilingualism / Susan M. Ervin-Tripp // Language Acquisition and Communicative Choice. – Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1954. – P. 1 – 14.
Fairclough N. Discourse and Social Change / Norman Fairclough. – New York : Polity Press, 1992. – 487 p.
Firth J. R. Papers in Linguistics / John R. Firth. – London : Oxford University Press, 1957. – 557 p.
Fitch K. L. A Cross-Cultural Study of Directive Sequences and Some Implications for Compliance-Gaining Research / Kristine L. Fitch // Communication Monographs. – V. 61. – P. 185 – 209.
Folger J. P. Working through Conflict: Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations / Jill P. Folger, Michael S. Poole, Ronald K. Stutman. – New York, 1993. – 342 p.
Fussell P. Class: A Guide through the American Status System / Paul Fussell. – New York : Columbia University Press, 1992. – 286 p.
GazdarG. Pragmatics: Implicature, Presupposition and Logical Form/ Geerz Gazdar. – New York : Academic Press, 1979. – 416 p.
Geertz C. The Interpretation of Culture / Clifford Geertz. – New York, 1973. – 286 p.
400