The Complete Guide To The TOEFL Test
.pdf234 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
LESSON 39
ERRORS WITH PREPOSITIONS
Errors with prepositions are among the most difficult errors to catch. Preposition use in English is very complex. For every rule, there seems to be an exception. Recently, there have been more errors involving prepositions in the Written Expression part of TOEFL, and the errors have been more difficult to spot.
Prepositions are used in the following ways: |
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In adverbial phrases that show time, place, and other relationships |
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in the morning |
on Pennsylvania Avenue |
to the park by a student |
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After certain nouns |
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a cause of |
a reason for |
a solution to |
• After certain adjectives and participles |
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different from |
aware of |
disappointed in |
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After certain verbs |
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combine with |
rely on |
refer to |
• In phrasal prepositions (twoor three-word prepositions)
according to |
together with |
instead of |
• In certain set expressions
by far |
in general |
on occasion |
at last |
Note: In Mini-Lessons for Section 2, found at the end of this section of the Guide, all of these uses for prepositions are explained and practice exercises are provided.
There are two main types of preposition errors that you may see in the Written Expression part of the test:
A) Errors in Preposition Choice
The wrong preposition is used according to the context of the sentence.
Some of the rules for choosing the correct prepositions are given in the Mini-Lessons, but you will never be able to memorize all the rules for preposition use in English. The more you practice, though, the more you will develop a "feel" for determining which preposition is correct in any given situation.
There are two particular situations involving preposition choice that are often tested in Written Expression:
• Errors with from . .. to and between . .. and
Both these expressions are used to give the starting time and ending time. They can also be used to show relationships of place and various other relationships.
He lived in Seattle from 1992 to 1997.
He lived in Seattle between 1992 and 1997.
Route 66 ran from Chicago to Los Angeles.
Route 66 ran between Chicago and Los Angeles.
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 235
Errors usually involve an incorrect pairing of those words, or the incorrect use of other prepositions:
*between A to B |
*from X andY |
*between A with B |
*since X toY |
• Errors with since, for, |
and in |
Since is used before a point in time with the present perfect tense-but never with the past tense. For is used before a period of time with the present perfect and other tenses. In is used before certain points in time (years, centuries, decades) with the past tense and other tenses-but never with the present perfect tense.
He's lived here since 1995.
He's lived here jor two years.
He moved here in 1995.
Errors involve the use of one of these prepositions for another:
*He's lived here in 1995.
*He's lived here since two years. *He lived here since 1995.
.... Sample Items
The pitch of a tuning fork depends of the size and shape of its arms.
ABC D
The correct preposition after the verb depend is on, not of
The Alaskan Pipeline runs between Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic
A B
Coastal Plain to the port ofValdez, a distance of 789 miles.
----c- |
D |
The correct pattern isjrom . .. to.
Candles were mankind's chief source of illumination since
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- C - |
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at least 2,000 years. |
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Before a period of time (2,000 years) the prepositionjor should be used. ...
B) Incorrect Inclusion or Omission of Prepositions
A preposition is used when one is not needed, or not used when one is needed.
236 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
... Sample Items
According many critics, MarkTwain's novel Huckleberry Finn is his
A
greatest work, and is one of the greatest American novels ever written.
BCD
The preposition to has been omitted from the phrase According to.
Some |
of the most of spectacular waterfalls in the eastern |
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- A - |
B |
-c-,- |
United States are found in the Pocono Mountains of Pennsylvania.
D
The preposition of should not be used in this phrase. (When most means "majority," it can be used in the phrase most of the. "Most of the people agree ... ," for example. However, in this sentence, most is part of the superlative form of the adjective spectacular, and so cannot be used with of) ...
Exercise 39.1
Focus: Identifying correct and incorrect preposition choice.
Directions: Underline the prepositions that correctly complete the sentences below. The first one is done as an example.
1.(EQrffo) an injection to be effective (on/against) tetanus, it must be administered (by/within) seventy-two hours (Qfjfor) the injury.
2.Wage rates depend (in/on) part (from/on) the general prosperity (of/for) the economy.
3.The invention (of/for) the hand-cranked freezer opened the door (for/to) commercial ice cream production, and (for/since) then, the ice-cream industry has grown (in/into) a four-billion-dollar- a-year industry.
4.(At/On) the time (of/in) the RevolutionaryWar, the North American colonies were merely a long string (with/ot) settlements (along/among) the Atlantic Coast (between/from) Maine and Georgia.
5.The probability (of/for) two people (in/on) a group (of/for) ten people having birthdays (in/on) the same day is about one (in/ot) twenty.
6.Showboats were floating theaters that tied up (at/to) towns (in/on) the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to bring entertainment and culture (to/at) the people (on/in) the frontier.
7.Scrimshaw, the practice (of/for) carving ornate designs (in/on) ivory, was first practiced (by/ot) sailors working (by/with) sail needles while (in/on) long sea voyages.
8.Assateague Island, (off/ot) the coast (off/ot) Virginia, is famous (for/to) its herds (of/with) wild ponies.
9.an/On) order (for/to) an object to be visible, light must travel (from/for) that object (at/to) a person's eyes.
10.an/On) the 1930's and 1940's, when train travel was (on/at) its peak, passengers could look forward (for/to) wonderful meals (on/at) trains.
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 237
11.(In/Since) the 1960's, op art, which was based (in/on) scientific theories (of/for) optics, employed patterns (of/in) lines and colors that seemed to change shape as the viewer looked (on/at) them.
12.The first national convention devoted (for/to) the issue (of/with) women's rights, organized partly (oflby) Elizabeth Cady Stanton, was held (in/on) her hometown (in/of) Seneca Falls, New York, (in/on) 1848.
13.(In/Since) 1716 a party (of/for) explorers led (by/with) Lieutenant Governor Spotswood (of/in) Virginia tried (in/on) vain to find a route (through/of) the Appalachian Mountains.
14.Dolphins rely (in/on) echolocation, a form (of/for) navigation similar (with/to) the sonar systems used (on/at) submarines.
15.Analytical geometry, (in/on) which algebraic ideas are used (for/to) the description (of/for) geometric objects, has been (in/on) use (for/since) the seventeenth century.
Exercise 39.2
Focus: Identifying and correcting errors involving the inclusion or omission of prepositions.
Directions: If there is a preposition unnecessarily included in a sentence, mark that sentence X and underline the preposition. If there is a preposition incorrectly omitted from a sentence, mark that sentence X, underline the word before and after the missing preposition, and write the correct preposition on the line at the end of the sentence. If the sentence is correctly written, mark that sentence C. The first one is done as an example.
~1. According polls taken throughout the twentieth century, Lincoln and Washington are the
preeminent American presidents. |
to |
2.Today, many varieties of fruit are available all year thanks improved storage and shipping techniques. ______
3.The origin of the Moon remains a mystery. ______
4.Traffic jams can cause of pollution, delays, and short tempers. ______
5.The Sun's rays heat the Earth's surface, on which then radiates the heat into the air.
6.A warm-blooded animal is one that keeps the same body temperature regardless the air temperature. ______
7.Charlie Parker, considered by many the greatest improviser in the history of jazz, influenced many other jazz musicians. ______
8.Most of people are aware of the need to visit dentists regularly. ______
9.Muscle fibers are attached bones by tendons. ______
10.In his essay "Self-Reliance," Ralph W Emerson told to his readers why they should not depend on the ideas of others. ______
11.The crayfish is a freshwater crustacean related the lobster. ______
12.Charles Goren was an expert the game of bridge. ______
13.Stomata are the tiny openings in the leaves of plants through which oxygen and carbon dioxide pass. ______
14.Ducks have small oil glands by which keep their feathers oily and repel water.
238Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
15.The tail of a comet always points away the Sun. ______
16.Lichens grow in extreme environments in where no other plants can exist.
17.Not all of waterfalls are formed in the same way. ______
18.The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right side the heart to the lungs.
___ 19. In addition to the twelve constellations of the zodiac, thirty other constellations were familiar people of ancient times. ______
20. Rainbows always appear in that part of the sky opposite the Sun. ______
Exercise 39.3
Focus: Identifying and correcting preposition errors. (Note: One or two items in this exercise do not focus on preposition errors. These are marked in the answer key with an asterisk.)
Directions: Decide which of the four underlined words or phrases-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-would not be considered correct, and write the letter of that expression in the blank at the beginning of the sentence. Then, in the blank at the end of the sentence, write a correction for the underlined phrase. The first one is done as an example.
~1. Water polo is a game in which is played in the water by two teams, each with seven
ABC 0
players. which
2. Dynamics is a branch of physics that deals for the relationship between motion
ABC
and force. ______
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___ 3. Many of radio stations began broadcasting |
baseball games during the 1920's. |
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The economy of Maine is based to a great extent in its forests, which cover eighty |
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percent of its surface area. ______ |
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The removal of waste materials is essential to all forms of live . ______ |
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John Diefenbaker, Prime Minister of Canada during 1957 to 1963, is given much of the |
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ABC |
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credit for the adoption of the Canadian Bill of Rights. ______ |
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The first stage on the manufacturing of all types of clothing is the cutting of the |
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material. ______
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 239
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All of the wheat grown throughout the world belongs one of fourteen species. |
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BCD |
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There are approximately 600 different species of trees native of the continental United |
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States. ______ |
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10. |
Waterwheels, which appeared on the fourth century B.C., |
were probably the first |
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-- A - |
If |
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machines not powered by humans or animals. ______ |
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Since centuries, Southwestern Indian tribes have valued turquoise and have used it |
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- A - |
-- B - |
-c- |
in jewelry. ______
D
12. Loggerhead turtles lay thousands eggs at a single time, but only a a few of survive
ABC
toadulthood. ______
D
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13. |
In nowadays, commercial bakeries use complex, automated machines, but the basic |
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principles of baking have changed little for thousands of years. ______ |
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It takes over four years for light from the nearest star reaching the earth. ______ |
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In the mid-1900's, an increasing number of jobs |
in the United States have involved the |
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handling of information. ______
D
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 241
• A definite article is usually used before these expressions of time and position.
the morning |
the front |
the beginning |
the afternoon |
the back |
the middle |
the evening" |
the center |
the end |
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the top |
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the past |
the bottom |
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the present |
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the future |
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*No article is used in the expression "at night."
•A definite article comes before a singular noun that is used as a representative of an entire class of things. This is especially common with the names of animals, trees, inventions, musical instruments, and parts of the body.
The tiger is the largest cat.
My favorite tree is the oak.
The Wright Bothers invented the airplane.
The oboe is a woodwind instrument.
The heart pumps blood.
•A definite article is used before expressions with a ordinal number. No article is used before expressions with cardinal numbers.
the first |
one |
the fourth chapter |
Chapter Four |
the seventh volume |
Volume Seven |
• A definite article is used before decades and centuries.
the 1930's |
the |
1800's |
the fifties |
the |
twenty-first century |
• A definite article is usually used before superlative forms of adjectives.
the widest river |
the most important decision |
• A definite article is used in quantity expressions in this pattern: quantifier + of + the + noun.
many of the textbooks |
not much of the paper |
some of the water |
most of the students |
all of the people |
a few of the photographs |
These expressions can also be used without the phrase of the.
many textbooks |
not much paper |
some water |
most students |
all people |
a few photographs |
•A definite article is used before the name of a group of people or a nationality. No article is used before the name of a language.
The Swedish are proud of their ancestors, the Vikings.
She learned to speak Swedish when she lived in Stockholm.
•A definite article is used when an adjective is used without a noun to mean "people who are ...."
Both the young and the old will enjoy this movie.
The poor have many problems.
242 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
•A definite article is used before a non-count noun or a plural noun when it is followed by a modifier. No article is used when these nouns appear alone.
The rice that I bought today is in the bag.
Rice is a staple in many countries.
Trees provide shade.
The trees in this park are mostly evergreens.
• A definite article is used before the name of a field of study followed by an of phrase. If a field
is used alone, or is preceded by an adjective, |
no article is used. |
the literature of the twentieth |
literature |
century |
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the history of the United States |
American history |
•Definite articles are used before the "formal" names of nations, states, and cities. (These usually contain of phrases.) No articles are used before the common names of nations, states, and cities.
the United States ofAmerica |
America |
the state of Montana |
Montana |
the city of Philadelphia |
Philadelphia |
•Definite articles are used before most plural geographic names: the names of groups of lakes, mountains, and islands. No article is used before the names of individual lakes, mountains, and islands.
the Great Lakes |
Lake Powell |
the Rocky Mountains |
Mount Washington |
the Hawaiian Islands |
Long Island |
In the Written Expression section, there are three main types of errors involving articles:
A) Incorrect Article Choice
One of the most common errors is the use of a in place of an or vice versa. Fortunately, this is also the easiest type of error to detect. Another error is a or an used in place of the, or the in place of a or an.
.... Sample Items
A eclipse of the Sun may be either total or partial.
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An must be used before a noun beginning with a vowel sound such as eclipse.
Rose Bird was a first woman in the history of California to serve
- A - |
B |
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on the State Supreme Court.
D
In a phrase with an ordinal number (such as first) the definite article the must be used. £.