The Art of Genes How Organisms Make Themselves

specialised.

unicellular organism Organism in which each individual is a single cell.

V

ventral Belly of an animal, or the part of a flower further from the growing tip of the stem (usually the lower part of the flower).

vertebrates Animals with internal bony or cartilaginous skeletons.

W

whorl Circular region that includes plant organs of one type (e.g. petals in a flower).

Figure acknowledgements

Acknowledgement is due to the following for illustrations: 1.1 © 1998 Cordon Art B

V- BaarnHolland. All rights reserved; 2.1 From Vaughan, J. (1903) Nelson's New Drawing Course, Thomas Nelson and Sons, London; 3.1 Photo Scala, Florence; 3.2, 3.3 After Stern (1968); 3.9, 3.10, 3.11 Oxford University Press; 4.3 From P. J. Redouté(1817) Les Roses; 4.5 © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 1998. Photograph from the Bridgeman Art Library; 7.2 The Royal Collection © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II; 4.12 After Lawrence (1992); 5.1 After Barth (1991); 8.1 Francis Bowyer; 8.2 Francis Bowyer; 8.4 © 1998 Cordon Art B V- BaarnHolland. All rights reserved; 8.6 The Bridgemand Art Library; 9.2 © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 1998. Photograph courtesy of Galerie Christine et Isy Brachot, Brussels; 9.7, 9.15 After NüssleinVolhard (1996); 10.1 (top) The Bridgeman Art Library; 10.1 (bottom) © Photo RMN; 11.4 © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 1998. Photograph from The Tate Gallery; 12.1 © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 1998. Photograph from the Bridgeman Art Library; 12.2 After Sinnott (1960); 12.5 After Steeves and Sussex (1989); 13.1 The Bridgeman Art Library; 13.2 © Arnold Roth; 14.1 The Bridgeman Art Library; 14.5 After Wolpert et al. (1998); 14.7 The Bridgeman Art Library; 14.9 (left) Photo Scala, Florence; 14.9 (right) Amsterdam, Van Gogh Museum (Vincent van Gogh Foundation); 15.7 (top) © The Br idgeman Art Library; 15.7 (bottom) © Succession Picasso/DACS 1998. Photograph from the Bridgeman Art Library; 15.8 (left) © The Bridgeman Art Library; 15.8 (right) © Succession Picasso/DACS 1998. Photograph from the Bridgeman Art Library; 16.1 Madonna and Child on a Curved Throne, Andrew W. Mellon Collection, © 1998 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington; 16.2 © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 1998. Photograph from The Tate Gallery; 16.5 Oxford University Press; 16.7 © 1998 Cordon Art B V- BaarnHolland. All rights reserved; 16.8 After Sinnott (1936); 18.2 W. Heath Robinson (1933). Professor Branestraum's Pancake Making Machine. In The Incredible Adventures of Professor Branestraum, Bodley Head. Reproduced by permission of Laurence Pollinger Lim ited and the Estate of Mrs J. C. Robinson; 18.7 W. Heath Robinson (c. 1943). Magnetic Apparatus for Putting Square Pegs into Round Holes. In Absurdities, Gerald Duckworth. Reproduced by permission of Laurence Pollinger Limited and the Estate of Mrs J. C. Robinson.

Index

A

abc model 63-6, 70 abnormalities, see mutations Académie des Sciences 115 adaptations 324-9, 330-2 evolution of 347-9

growth 8-9 randomness 350 adenine 27

affinity of proteins 156-7, 161-2 Akam, Michael 85

alternating pattern 297-9 amino acids

protein formation 32 structure 30, 275-6 see also proteins ancestors 131, 334-5 animal cells 20-1 animals classification 110-11 regeneration 216 reproduction 22

response to environment 22 restoration 214

skeleton 55-6 structure 111-13

antenna, molecular, see molecular antenna Antennapedia Complex 77

Antirrhinum 38, 61 chromosomes 27 cycloidea mutation 245-8

Darwin's experiments 244-5 flowering 135-7

peloric 244 structure 67-8 symmetry 240-1 apoptosis 318-19 Appel, Toby 115

Arabidopsis thaliana 38, 61, 67-8 arthropods 106

artist's point of view 12-13

assessment 355-6 association 34 asymmetry 230-2 chance 268-9 combination 249-50 development of 241-2 hidden colours 294

inside-outside 259, 263-4, 278-9 left-right 266-7, 268-74, 277-9 RNA 170-2

transmission of 339 see also symmetry auxin 222

axes, see symmetry

B

backbone, see vertebrae bases 27-9

Bates, Henry Walter 49

Batesian mimicry 50; see also mimicry Bateson, William 71

bees 79-82

Bender, Welcome 84 Benzer, Seymour 189 bicoid gene 147-8

protein concentration studies 154-5 transcription to RNA 171-2 bilateral symmetry 236-7

animals 239-40, 250-3 flowers 240-1, 249-50 vertebrates 270 binding sites 87-8, 94-5 mutations 98-9

pattern interpretation 296-7 reversibility 152

biological reproduction, see reproduction Bithorax Complex 72-7

Boncinelli, Eduardo 120

Bonellia 210-11

boss gene 192-3 brain

development 224-9 handedness 278 receptor proteins 225

signalling molecules 225 working of 14

bride-of-sevenless mutants 192-3, 196-7 bristle patterns 39-43, 46, 54

Brown, Nigel 278

Brûlet, Phillipe 125

butterfly wing patterns 49-51, 54

C

Caenorhabditis elegans 129-30, 274-6, 319 carbohydrates 26

carpels 58

Carpenter, Rosemary 64, 135 catalysts 25

cell membrane 21 cells 18, 20

communication between 186-8, 206 continuity 205-6

death 317-19 differentiated 215 division 18-19, 20, 29 elements 19-20 embryonic 212-13 formation 19-20 identity 196-7

increase in number 139-40 movement 260-3, 320-1 plant 20-1

cellulae 19 cell wall 21

Chambon, Pierre 120 chemical energy 26

chemical senses, see smell; taste chemical signals 187-8

chicks, study of 37 chromosomes 27-8 structure 30-1

X and Y 42-3, 223 classification of animals 110-11 cleavage 140-1

cleft palate 56

cloning, see genes, cloning code, genetic 31-2

coding region 31-2, 88, 119, 158 collagen 275-6

Collingwood, R. G. 13 colour-blindness 218 colour recognition 79-82 combined response 93-4

common frame of reference 49 competition, proteins 159-65, 203-4 complementary DNA 28-9 complexity 182

computer analogy 11-12 concentration gradient 150-1, 202-4 bicoid 171

interpretation 151-5

lock and key mechanism 155-7 cone cells 191, 218

Connections, Principle of 113, 116 connections within structures 109-15 continuity 205-6

contractile proteins 262-3 copying 16-18

creation 17-18, 33-4 creativity

in evolution 343-4, 358-62 human 13-14

in reproduction 173, 179-80 of thought 226-8

Crick, Francis 29 cuticle, embryo 146

Cuvier, Georges 107-11, 113-15, 127-8 cycloidea mutation 245-8

cytosine 27 cytoplasm 21

D

Darwin, Charles 8, 116-17, 244-5, 347-51 daughter cells 29

dedifferentiation of cells 215-16, 217 defaults 64-6

deformations 305-10; see also mutations deoxyribonucleic acid, seeDNA development 8-9, 23

brain 224-9

comparison of stages 309-10 continual interpretation 248 fabrication analogy 357-8 homeobox genes 122-3 plant 60-1

stages 357-9 starting point 172

see also environmental response; mutations differentiated cells 215

divergence 100-1 division of cells, see cells DNA

alterations 355-6 complementary 28-9 conversion to proteins 30-3 language of 34-8 mammals 121

mutations 35-7 replication 28-9 strands 28-9 structure 27-31

transcription to RNA 31-2 variations transmitted 352 see also RNA

Dollé, Pascal 120

Dolly (sheep) 221 dorsal gene 251-3 dorsal-ventral axis 239

Driever, Wolfgang 154, 171 Drosophilia melanogaster, see fruit flies dual analogy 343-4

Duboule, Denis 120

duplication, see genes, duplication Dürer, Albrecht 306-7, 327 dynein 278

E

ectoderm 260

egg cells 148-50, 170-1; see also fertilised eggs elaboration 142, 247-8

electrostatic charges, proteins 25 embryonic cells 212-13

embryos 122-3 cuticle 146

gap genes 167-8 germ layers 259-62 growth 133-5 implantation 187-8 mutations 145-6

symmetry 251, 264-5, 277, 289-90, 292-4 endoderm 260

energy 26

environmental change 324-5; see also adaptations environmental response 160, 173-4

brain 225-6

developmental 209-12, 216-23, 223-4 external and internal environments 207-9 individuality 207

interpreting genes 155-7 master proteins 88-91 plants 22, 211-12, 219-20

enzymes 25, 330-1; see also proteins epigenesis 4-5

evidence against 6-7 mechanistic 9 Escherichia coli 18, 330-1

Escher, M. C. 1, 2, 137, 313 evolution 7-9, 351-2 creativity 343-4, 358-62 Darwin's theory 8, 244-5, 358 locks and keys 97-9

of patterns 49-54

unicellular organisms 20, 329-32 explicit themes 285-7

expression patterns 82-4, 86, 90-1

F

fabrication 343-4, 346-7, 357-8, 360-1 fats 26

fertilisation 6, 172 fertilised eggs 70-2, 141-3

hidden colour concentration 151 flower -buds 136-7, 139

flowers

Antirrhinum 67, 135-7

Arabidopsis 67

formation 59-61

mutations 61-3, 135-9 organ development 85-6 structure 57-9

symmetry 240-1, 249-50, 254-5, 269-70 floricaula (flo) gene 135-9

form and function 107-8, 116, 127-8 frame of reference 49, 99, 170 Freer, Roy 133

frogs

study of 37 symmetry of 255-6 fruit flies 38 development 149-50

duplication and divergence 101-2 gastrulation 260-3

hidden colours 76-7, 84-5 larvae 74-5

light responses 189-93 mutations 118, 145-7, 189-93 segment identity 71-7 symmetry 250-3, 254-5, 289-90

functional integration 109-11, 116-17

G

gap genes 167-8 Garber, Rick 84 gastrulation 260-3

Gehring, Walter 84, 85, 118, 120, 298 gemmules 350-1

genes

activity 37, 161-2, 296-7 cloning 37, 221

coding region 31-2, 88, 119, 158 combination of 6

duplication 99-101 expression pattern 82-4, 90-1 gap 167-8

identity 66-9, 84, 169 interaction 104-5, 160-2, 163-7 interpretation, see interpretation

interpreting, see interpreting genes isolation of 83-4, 119

mutations 35-7 naming 138

on and off states 82-3, 89-91 pair-rule 297-8

response to proteins 196-7 segment identity 76-7 structure 30-1

study of 37-8 genetic code 31-2 genetics 71

Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne 107-8, 111-15, 128 geometrical transformations 233

germ layers 259-62 germline 35-6

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 55-61, 69-70, 287-9 gourds 315-16

gradient, concentration, see concentration gradient growth

adaptations 8-9 cell death 317-19 direction 315-16 embryos 133-5

hidden colours 310-14 influence on colours 316-17 restriction 311

growth regulators 222; see also hormones guanine 27

gynanders 41-2

H

Haeckel, Ernst 37

Hafen, Ernst 85, 191, 298

Haldane, J. B. S. 181

Hailer, Albrecht yon 3, 133-4 Hals, Frans 327

handedness 265-8, 273-4 brain involvement 278 crabs 269

painting 267-8, 277-9 plants 269-70, 271-2 shells 272-3 vertebrates 270-1 worms 274-6 head-tail axis 239

Heath Robinson, William 345-6, 361 helices 271-4, 275-6