The Art of Genes How Organisms Make Themselves
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Glossary
(Words in italics indicate cross-references within the glossary.)
A
affinity Strength with which two molecules stick or bind to each other. amino acids Fundamental subunits of proteins, comprising 20 different types. apoptosis Controlled form of cell death.
arthropods Jointed animals with a hard outer skeleton, such as insects or crustaceans.
B
bases Fundamental subunits of DNA and RNA. There are four types of bases in DNA: A (adenine), G (guanine), C (cytosine) and T (thymine).
bilateral symmetry Having a single plane of reflection symmetry.
binding site Short sequence of DNA which is recognised by a master protein. bract Small leaf-like organ below each flower.
bud Early stage in the development of a shoot, flower or leaf.
C
carpels Female flower organs that when pollinated will grow to form fruit containing seed. catalyst Substance which facilitates a chemical reaction, without itself being used up in the
process (e.g. an enzyme).
cell Fundamental unit of life. For plants and animals it comprises a nucleus, cytoplasm and a surrounding membrane. Plant cells also have a cell wall.
cell division Process whereby a single cell divides to give two cells.
cell wall Rigid structure surrounding the cell membrane, common in cells of plants, fungi and
bacteria.
chromosome Molecule of DNA packaged within a cell. Most human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes within their nucleus.
cleavage Early stage in the development of many animals in which the fertilised egg undergoes many rounds of cell division without an overall increase in size.
coding region Part of a gene that codes for a protein.
collagen Family of fibrous proteins, being a major component of skin, bone and the cuticle of nematode worms.
concentration The number of molecules of a substance per unit volume. cuticle Hardened outer skin or covering (e.g. of an insect or nematode worm). cytoplasm Contents of a cell apart from the nucleus.
D
dedifferentiation Return of a specialised cell to a more embryonic condition.
deformation Method for relating two different shapes by stretching and/or compressing one so that it comes to resemble the other.
denticle Toothor thorn-like outgrowth, as seen on the outer surface of a fruit fly larva.
differentiation Process whereby cells become finally specialised (e.g. becoming mature nerve cells, liver cells, leaf cells, etc.).
DNA Hereditary material, consisting of a long double-stranded molecule carrying a sequence of bases.
dorsal Back of an animal, or the part of a flower nearer to the growing tip of the stem (usually the upper part of the flower).
E
ectoderm Outer germ layer of an animal embryo, giving rise to the skin and nervous system. embranchements The major categories of animal proposed by Cuvier (vertebrates, articulates,
molluscs and radiates).
endoderm Innermost germ layer of an animal embryo; it gives rise to the inner linings of the body, such as the gut and lungs.
enzymes Diverse group of (mainly) proteins that catalyse chemical reactions (see also catalyst). epigenesis Theory that the adult gradually emerges from the fertilised egg through a process of
fresh formation (as opposed to preformation).
evolution Process whereby populations of individuals may change over many generations to give new types of organisms.
expression pattern Regions of an organism where a gene is switched on or off at any given time.
G
gastrulation Process whereby the different germ layers of an animal embryo are established in their respective positions.
gene Basic unit of inheritance, corresponding to a segment of DNA which usually includes a coding region and a regulatory region.
gene activity Extent to which a gene is on or off.
gene cloning Isolation of a gene through multiplying it in bacteria.
genetic code Rules which relate amino acids in a protein to triplets of bases in DNA. germ layers Regions of an animal embryo that will give rise to various
tissues. Most animals have three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. germline Cells that will give rise to sperm or eggs.
H
handedness Cases of left-right asymmetry in which there is a consistent bias towards one mirror-image form over the other.
hardware Machinery of a computer, such as printed circuits and wiring.
homeobox Particular type of DNA sequence (about 180 bases long) that was originally found as a conserved region in various segment identity genes of the fruit fly, and has subsequently been found in many other genes.
homeodomain Particular type of protein sequence (about 60 amino acids long) encoded by the homeobox. It is diagnostic of a large family of master proteins, including those involved in establishing distinctions along the head-tail axis in vertebrates and arthropods.
homeosis Type of variation in which one member of a repeating series assumes features that are normally associated with a different member (e.g. petals replacing stamens).
I
identity gene Gene involved in making regional distinctions within an organism, such as between whorls of organs in a flower, or between segments in a fly.
interpreting gene Gene that responds to a pattern of master proteins (hidden colours) through its regulatory region.
L
labellum Petal of an orchid flower, often highly elaborate, that typically ends up in the lowermost position.
lactose Type of sugar molecule, abundant in milk.
M
MADS-box Region of DNA that is conserved in many flower organ identity genes.
master protein Protein that can influence the expression of a gene by binding to its regulatory region (equivalent to a hidden colour).
meiosis Type of cell division that results in the daughter nuclei ending up with half the number of chromosomes of the parent.
meristem Group of undifferentiated plant cells that divide and replenish themselves while at the same time adding more tissue to the plant.
mesoderm Middle germ layer of an animal embryo, giving rise to most of the flesh and bone in the body (e.g. muscle, blood, heart, kidneys, skeleton).
mitosis Normal process of cell division in which each daughter cell ends up with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
multicellular organism Organism in which each mature individual comprises many cells. mutation Alteration in DNA sequence that gets transmitted each time the DNA is replicated (see
replication).
N
nucleus Small body located within a cell that contains the genes
O
ommatidium Individual facet of an insect eye.
P
pangenesis Now discarded theory that hereditary characteristics are transmitted by 'gemmules' cast off by the body.
petals Organs in the second whorl of a flower; typically the most attrac tive and obvious parts of a flower.
preformation Theory prevalent in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that the fertilised egg contains a preformed miniature version of the adult (as opposed to epigenesis).
prepattern Underlying pattern within an organism that can be interpreted in various ways by genes, equivalent to a pattern of hidden colours.
probe Type of molecule used to detect particular sequences of DNA, RNA or protein.
protein Molecule made up of a sequence of amino acids strung together, typically forming a complex shape.
R
radial symmetry Having a single axis of rotational symmetry with more than one plane of reflection symmetry passing through it (e.g. bottle, buttercup).
receptor protein Protein that sets off a chain of reactions in a cell when triggered by a specific stimulus, such as a signalling protein, scent, light or movement.
reflection symmetry Invariance following reflection in a plane.
regeneration Renewal of a body part following injury or loss, derived from cells of mature tissue that undergo dedifferentiation (compare to restoration).
regulatory region Region of a gene that contains a series of binding sites to which master proteins may bind and influence the gene's expression.
replication Process whereby a DNA molecule is copied to give two DNA molecules; this usually precedes cell division.
restoration Renewal following injury or loss, derived from cells that were already in an embryonic or undifferentiated condition (sometimes this is also classified as regeneration).
resupinate Upside-down, as in most orchid flowers, which twist through 180º.
RNA Single-stranded molecule carrying a sequence of bases, typically derived by transcription of a segment of DNA.
rotational symmetry Invariance following rotation about an axis.
S
sepals Organs in the outermost whorl of a flower, typically small and leaf-like.
signalling protein Protein that can trigger activity of a receptor protein by matching its shape. situs inversus Condition in which all body organs are arranged as a mirror image of the usual
situation.
software Programs that can be run on a computer.
spherical symmetry Having an infinite number of axes and degrees of rotational symmetry, and an infinite number of planes of reflection symmetry (as in a sphere).
stamens The male organs of a flower, which bear pollen.
T
transcription Process whereby a segment of DNA directs the synthesis of a corresponding RNA
molecule.
transformation A geometrical operation such as reflection, rotation or translation. translation (in geometry) Movement in a straight line.
translation (of RNA) Process whereby an RNA molecule directs the synthesis of a corresponding protein.
translational symmetry Invariance following movement by a certain amount in a straight line (as in an infinite repeating pattern).
U
undifferentiated cells Cells in a more embryonic condition, before they have become