Grammar_manual

THE VERB "TO HAVE"

The verb 't o have' may be used as a notional verb and as an auxiliary verb. As a notional verb it means possession:

e.g. / have a book.

In interrogative sentences the predicate is placed before the subject: e.g. Have you a book?

Negative sentences with the verb 'to have' are formed with the negation 'not' especially when the attribute to the noun is expressed by a numeral or the indefinite pronoun 'any':

e.g. I haven 't (have not) a raincoat. I have not three books, I have only two, I have not any map of England.

Negative sentences with the verb ’to have’ are very often formed with the help of the negation no. In this case the article is omitted:

e.g. I have no raincoat.

In colloquial speech the verb 'to have' is very often replaced by 'have got': e.g. / have got a map of England.

The verb 'to have' is often used in:

1) set expressions, e.g. to have dinner, to have a smoke, to have a swim etc.

2) the modal expression to have + infinitive, which is rendered in Russian by 'приходится,

должен,

вынужден'. In these cases the auxiliary 'do' is necessary to form negative and interrogative sentences: e.g. Do you have to walk all the way home? I don‘t have to walk, I take a tram.

Do you have supper at home? I don't, / have supper at a cafe.

POSSESSIVE CASE

Nouns have two case forms in Modern English: the common case (student, girl) and the possessive case (student's, girl's).

The use of the possessive case is as a rule restricted to nouns denoting living beings.

The possessive case is also used with nouns denoting time, distance, space and with some adverbs of time derived from nouns:

e.g. Have you got today's newspaper? They walked a mile's distance.

PRONOUNS SOME, ANY, NONE

The indefinite pronouns 'some' and 'any' are used with countable and uncountable nouns, meaning: 'Some' is usually used in affirmative sentences, 'any' - in interrogative and negative: e.g. Are there

any oaks in the park? Yes, there are some oaks in the park.

'Some' not 'any' is used in special and general questions expressing request or proposal: e.g. Do you want some water? Will you give me some milk, mum?

'Any' may be used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of "любой": e.g. You may take any pencil.

The pronoun 'none' is used in negative sentences in place of nouns: e.g. I have a lot of friends in Moscow, but she has none.

SENTENCES WITH THE INTRODUCTORY 'THERE'

Sentences with the introductory 'there' are used when it is necessary to point out the existence of a thing in a definite place:

e.g. There is a clock on the desk. - На столе часы. There are books in the bookcase. - В шкафу книги. There is some water in the glass. - В стакане вода.

The noun which is the subject of the sentence is usually used with the indefinite article, if it is a countable noun in the singular, or with no article, if it is a countable noun in the plural, or an uncountable noun. The noun which serves as an adverbial modifier of place is always used with the definite article.

In sentence without the introductory 'there' the speaker draws the attention of the listener not to the existence of a thing but to its place;

e.g. The clock is on the table. - Часы на столе. There is a clock on the table. - На столе часы.

If a sentence with the introductory 'there' has several subjects, the verb is used in the same number as

the first of the subjects:

e.g. There is a sofa, a table and five chairs in the room. There are three boys and one girl in their family.

MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs are used to show the speaker's attitude towards the action or state expressed by the infinitive. They are called defective because they lack forms.

CAN

The verb 'can' expresses:

1)ability or possibility: e.g. My friend can play chess. She cannot come tonight.

2)informal permission: e.g. Can I take your book? You can. (You can't. - prohibition.

NOTE: Mind the spelling of the negative form: cannot.

For the past tense the form 'could' is used: e.g. He couldn't understand anything.

MAY

The verb 'may' expresses:

1)permission: e.g. You may come in the evening. May I ask you a question? - You may. May I smoke here?

-You may not (mustn 't).

2)supposition: e.g. He may know it. He may have come already.

MUST

The verb 'must' expresses:

1} obligation, necessity: e.g. You must go to the laboratory now. Must we read the text again? - No, you needn 't.

2) supposition: e.g. He must be at home now. He must have been at home then.

The verb 'must' in the negative form means prohibition, e.g. You mustn't smoke in the room.

For the past tense 'must' is used in indirect speech only, e.g. Mary said she must go and see her aunt. In a l l other cases for the past and future tenses the equivalent 'have to' is used, e.g. They had to

take exams. Did they have to take exams? They didn 't have to take exams.

NEED

The verb 'need' expresses necessity. It is mostly used in its negative form.

NOTE: Do not mix up the modal verb 'need' with a notional verb 'need' which is usually used with a direct object: e.g. Do you need a new raincoat? (a notional verb). You needn't go shopping today, you may do it tomorrow (modal verb).

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

In direct speech the exact words of the speaker are given, in indirect speech the speaker reports in his own words what someone else has said before.

When we transform direct speech into indirect the personal pronoun is changed according to the sense. The conjunction that is not used in colloquial speech: e.g. Dr. Sandford says he must pay a lot of money for the house.

GENERAL QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT

General questions are introduced by the conjunction 'if' or 'whether'. Indirect questions have no inversion: the predicate follows the subject.

SPECIAL QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH

Special questions in indirect speech become object clauses. The word order of a question is changed into the word order of an affirmative sentence with the subject preceding the predicate.

The intonation is also changed: the words introducing a direct question are pronounced with the falling tone: e.g. He asks me: "Where do your parents live?"

In indirect questions there is usually no pause between the principal and the subordinate clauses: e.g.

He asks me where my parents live.

If there is a pause, the principal сlause is pronounced with the rising tone: e.g. He asks me where my parents live.

Imperative sentences in indirect speech undergo the following changes: the verb to say is replaced by the verb to tell or to order in case of commands, and by the verb to ask in case of request: e.g. He says: "Do it at once". He tells me to do it at once. She says: "Switch off the radio, please". She asks to switch off the radio.

DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Most adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative degree and the superlative degree. Monosyllabic adjectives usually form their comparatives and superlatives by the inflexions -er, -est:

e.g. short - shorter - (the) shortest.

Polysyllabic adjectives form their degrees of comparison with the help of more and most: e.g. careful -more careful - (the) most careful.

The following polysyllabic adjectives, however, generally form their comparatives and superlatives inflexionally:

1)adjectives of two syllables, ending in -y, -ow, -er, -le, e.g. narrow - narrower - (the) narrowest

happy - happier - (the) happiest clever - cleverer - (the) cleverest

.simple - simpler - (the) simplest;

2) adjectives of two syllables which have the stress on the last syllable: e.g. complete - completes - (the) completest

Some adjectives have irregular forms of degrees of comparison,

'Little' in the sense of "small" has no degree of comparison. In the comparative and superlative degree smaller and smallest are used. e.g. I have a little room, h e has a smaller room. "They have the smallest room. BUT: I have little time. She has less time.

'Farther, further' have been so confused that usage now makes no distinction between them. Some careful writers, however, like to reserve farther for 'greater distance', and further for 'more' or 'additional', e.g. A further point in his favour is that he has travelled farther than we have.

Modern usage is to restrict elder and eldest to family relationships and to use older and oldest as the general comparative and superlative, e.g.:

(a)My elder brother is now in Canada.

(b)Elizabeth was the eldest of the three sisters.

(c)Elizabeth was the oldest girl in her class.

(d)St. Andrew's is an older church than All Saints'.

DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

1.If the adverbs is a one-syllable word the comparative degree is formed by adding -er and the superlative

by adding -est:, e.g. fast -faster -fastest, hard - harder - hardest,

2.Adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative by means of 'more' and the superlative by means of

'most',

e.g. wisely - more wisely - most wisely.

3.Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison: well - better - best, badly - worse - worst,

much -

more - most, little - less - least.

THE PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE

The Present Indefinite is used to express:

1)actions permanently characterizing the subject, habitual actions: e.g. The sun rises early in summer. Do you

speak English?

2)actions going on at the present moment with verbs not used in the Continuous forms: e.g. I see George in the

street. I hear somebody knock.

3)a future action with verbs of motion such as to go, to come, to leave etc.: e.g. The train leaves at 10 tomorrow.

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle 1 of the notional verb.

The Present Continuous is used to denote:

1) an action going on at the present moment or at the present period of time: e.g. Somebody is knocking at the door. Please, open it. He is writing a new book now.

NOTE: The Present Indefinite not the Present Continuous is used to denote actions going on at the present moment when the fact is important and not the process: e.g. Why do you look at me as if you had never seen me?

The Present Continuous can be used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to a person at a given moment, e.g. "You are being nervous" - he said.

2) an action which will take place in the near future due to a previous arrangement: e.g. We are learning

on

Sunday. Are you dining out tonight?

3) an action generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject (with the adverbs always,

ever,

constantly). This characteristic is emotionally coloured; e.g. She is always grumbling. She is constantly thinking of

you.

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

The Present Perfect is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb 'to have' and Participle II of the notional verb, e.g. He has already come. Have you done it yet?

1. The Present Perfect denotes a completed past action connected with the present time in its result:

e.g. /

have opened the window. (The window is open).

a) The Present Perfect is often used with the adverbs just, yet, already, lately, or late: e.g. / have

just

written to him.

b) It is also used with the adverbs denoting a period of time which is not over: today, tonight, this

week,

this month etc (if the action does not refer to some definite moment within this period): e.g. Have you listened to

the news tonight?

BUT: Did you get up early today?

NOTE: In special question beginning with when only the Past Indefinite is used: e.g. When did you see him last?

2. The Present Perfect denotes an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present

or

is still going on with verbs not used in the continuous forms. In this case either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration.

'Since' is used to indicate the starting point of the action. If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite: e.g. She has been very busy since she came back to town. I haven't seen her since 1966.

The preposition 'for' is used to denote the whole period of duration: e.g. / have known him for many

years. -Я знаю его много лет.

THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary verb 'to be' and Participle I of the notional verb: e.g. You have been working for an hour. Have you been working for an hour? You have not been working for an hour.

1. The Present Perfect Continuous is used to express an action which began in the past, has been going

on

up to the moment of speaking or is still going on: e.g.

1) Your eyes are red, you have been crying; They're laughing because he's been telling them

his

anecdotes. In these sentences the action of the verb in the Present Perfect Continuous does not continue at the

moment of speaking.

2) / have been teaching at school for twenty years. She has been listening to the tapes for a long time. In

these sentences the action of the verb in the Present Perfect Continuous continues into the moment of speaking.

2. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous is parallel to the use of the Present Perfect (2). However there are some differences between them.

a) The Present Perfect is more common with verbs which cannot have the continuous form: e.g. I've

known

the lady all her life. I've loved her since she was a child. "We've been at the conference for two hours," he said.

b) The Present Perfect is preferable in negative sentences: e.g. She hasn 't written to me for a

year. I

haven ‘t read the paper for the last two days.

c) The Present Perfect Continuous is used when the speaker emphasizes the progress of an action:

e.g.

We 've been watching this film for an hour

Compare also the sentences: I've been learning Russian since we last met and have made some progress in it. I've learnt all the irregular verbs since we last met (and now I know them all).

THE PAST INDEFINITE TENSE

The Past Indefinite Tense is used to express an action performed in the past. The time of the action may be indicated by adverbials of past time, such as 'yesterday', 'a week ago', 'last yea'r etc. The Past Indefinite is used to denote:

1)a succession of past actions, e.g. He threw down his spade and entered the house.

2)a single action performed in the past, e.g. I saw this film a week ago.

3)repeated actions in the past, e.g. He made an entry in his diary every night.

NOTE: repeated actions are often expressed by used to + infinitive and would + infinitive. Used to is more colloquial and would is more literary: e.g. When the children came from school they used to go and play in the giant’s garden. When asked such questions he would smile.

THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb 'to be' and Participle I of the notional verb.

The Past Continuous Tense is used to express:

1) an action which was in progress at some definite moment. This moment of the past is marked by

an

adverbial phrase or subordinate clause of time with the verb in the Past Indefinite: e.g. They were working in the

garden at that time yesterday. He was speaking to the dean when we entered the hall.

2) an action covering a whole period of time in the past, usually with some emphasis on the progress

of

the action; e.g. / was reading the whole day yesterday. It was raining the whole day yesterday.

THE FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE

The Future Indefinite is used to express a future action. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive of the notional verb. 'Shall' is used for the first person singular and plural. 'Will' is used for the second and the third person singular and plural: e.g. I shall do it.

The Future Indefinite is not used in adverbial clauses of time and condition. The Present Indefinite is used instead of the Future after the conjunctions 'when', 'till' ('until'), 'before', 'as soon as', 'if': e.g. If the weather is fine we shall go for a walk. I’ll ring him up when I come home.

In object clauses introduced by 'if' and 'when' the Future Indefinite is used, e.g. I'm not sure if he will be free.

THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Future Continuous Tense is formed with the help of the verb 'to be' in the Future Indefinite Tense and Participle I of the notional verb.

1. The future tense of the continuous aspect denotes an action going on at a given future moment.

The

future moment may be fixed by an adverbial of definite time: e.g. I'll be doing my lessons at 7 o'clock, or by

another action, e.g. / shall be cleaning up when you come with my things.

2. Sometimes the Future Continuous tense is used to express an action filling up a whole period of

time in

the future, but only when the action is considered in its progress: I shall be packing all day tomorrow.

3. The Future Continuous is used to express an action which is supposed, planned or anticipated in

the

future: "Will you be going to a dance tonight?" he asked.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

If the verb of the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, the verb of the subordinate clause must also be used in one of the past tenses.

The Future in the Past

The Future in the Past is formed by means of the auxiliary verb should for the first person, would for the rest of the persons and the infinitive without 'to'.

The Future in the Past Tense is used to express an action viewed from a past moment: e.g. He knew that we should help him.

Everybody understood that she would not tell them a word.

I told my friend I should go to a holiday centre during my vacation.

The Past Perfect Tense

The Past Perfect Tense is formed by means of the verb 'to have' in the Past Indefinite and Participle

IIof the notional verb.

1.The Past Perfect Tense expresses an action accomplished before a given past moment. The

past

moment may be indicated by an adverbial expression: by four o'clock, by that time, etc., or by another action in the

past: e.g. By the end of the week we had already done half the work. We had gone far when we suddenly saw that huge cloud.

2.The Past Indefinite is sometimes used instead of the Past Perfect in clauses introduced by 'after', 'when', 'as soon as': e.g. He stood motionless after she disappeared.

3.The Past Prefect is also used to denote an action begun before a given past moment and still going

on at

that moment.

In subordinate clauses introduced by since the Past Indefinite is used: e.g. She told me she had been ill since she came back from the seaside.

Indirect Speech

In changing from direct speech into indirect speech it is necessary to use the rules of the Sequ ence of Tenses that have been mentioned. The verb to say, which is used to introduce direct speech, is usually replaced by the verb to tell in indirect speech if a person is mentioned, e.g. He said to her "I don't know

anything about it". He told her (that) he did not know anything about it. - She said: "Is the boy late today?" She asked if the boy was late today.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

The Passive Voice is formed by means of the appropriate tense form of the auxiliary verb 'to be' and the Second Participle of the notional verb, e.g. The article is translated.

The Passive Voice is usually used:

a) when the active subject is unknown or when the speaker is more interested in the verb activity

itself

than in the active subject. In such cases the by-object is omitted, e.g. These books mustn't be taken away;

b) sometimes the active subject must be mentioned to complete the sense of the sentence, then it

is

introduced by the preposition 'by', e.g. This novel was written by Jack London.

There are more passive constructions in English than in Russian. In English an indirect object of a transitive verb and a prepositional object of an intransitive verb can be used as subjects in the passive,

The adverbs 'always', 'often', 'sometimes', 'just', 'already' etc. are placed after the first auxiliary, e.g. The floor is often washed. The floor is just being washed. The floor has just been washed.

THE INFINITIVAL COMPLEX OBJECT

Some English verbs can be used with an infinitival complex object which is expressed by a noun in the common case (or a pronoun in the objective case) followed by the infinitive of a verb. The infinitival complex object is used with:

a) verbs expressing mental activity: to expect, to consider, to know, to suppose, to believe: etc.,

e.g.

Everybody expected her to marry Pete;

b) verbs expressing wish and emotion: to wish, to want, to desire, to like, to dislike, to love, to hate:

e.g. /

dislike you to talk like that. We want Tom to help us;

c) verbs expressing sense perception: to hear, to see, to watch, to feel, to observe, to notice, etc.

The

infinitive with these verbs is used without the participle 'to': e.g. / saw Mr. Brown enter the room. I felt blood rush

into my cheeks.

NOTE: with verbs of sense perception Participle I can be used instead оf the infinitive if a process is expressed.

e.g. / hear him singing. We watched her dancing;

d) verbs expressing order and permission: to order, to allow, to have, to let: e.g. / won't have you

speak

like it. Let him do it again. He ordered his carriage to be ready.

NOTE: the absence of the participle 'to' when the complex follows the verbs 'have' and 'let';

e) verbs expressing compulsion: to make, to cause, to get: e.g. Light steps made him turn his head. NOTE: the absence of the participle 'to' when the complex follows the verb 'make'. Notice, however, that in passive sentences with this verb, we use a to-infinitive: e.g. He was made to do it.

THE GERUND

The gerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. It has both noun and verb characteristics: e.g. I'm tired of (what?) rowing. (It functions as a noun). He doesn't like being read to. They accuse him of having set fire to the stable. (As a verb it has voice and tense distinctions).

Sometimes the gerund is preceded by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case, e.g. I insist on Mary's

This construction functions as a syntactical complex (gerundial complex).

Gerund as Direct Object

a)to the verbs: mind, avoid, put off, need, want, give up, enjoy, like, afford, stop, finish, begin, e.g. The house needs painting;

b)to the adjectives: busy, worth,

e.g. The book is worth reading.

Gerund as Prepositional Object

a)to the verbs: look forward to, know of, think of, thank for, object to, rely on, insist on, depend on, suspect smb.

of: e.g. Thank you for inviting me;

b)to the adjectives and past participles: be fond of, be good at, be tired of, be proud of, be surprised at, be used to,

be sorry for, be interested in.

Gerund as attribute

to the nouns: method, way, habit, idea: e.g. He was in the habit of having a walk every evening.

e.g. She answered without turning her head.

She startled her father by bursting into tears.

SOME FACTS OF ENGLISH

'Either ... or' a pair of words acting as a single co-ordinate conjunction. The following points should be noted:

1. If the alternative subjects are singular, the verb is singular also. e.g. Either the boy or the girl is

to blame.

2.If both subject are plural, the verb is plural also, e.g. Either the boys or the girls are to blame.

3.If one of the subjects is singular and the other plural, the verb is plural, e.g. Either Tommy or the

boys

who live next door are to blame. Either the boys who live next door or Tommy are to blame.

4. If both subjects are singular and each requires a different form of the verb, the verb agrees with

the

subject immediately preceding it, e.g. Either you or I am to blame. Either you or he is to blame. Either he or you

are to blame.

These remarks apply equally to 'neither... nor' and 'not only ... but also'.

' Neither ... nor' a pair of words acting as a single co-ordinate conjunction. The use of the first requires the use of the second, e.g.

Wrong: Neither Jack or Frank was to blame. Right: Neither Jack nor Frank was to blame.

Whether a singular or plural verb is required is discussed under 'either ... or'.

When not takes the place of neither, it is followed by or, not nоr, e.g. The book was not in the study or in the bedroom. We do, however, use nor in such sentences as: The book was not in the study, nor was it in the bedroom.

'Differ with, from' Be careful to use the correct preposition. If we do not agree with a person, we differ with him; but our opinions differ from his.

'Sometimes, sometime, some time' The following examples may help to show the different shades

of meaning:

a)/ meet him sometimes in London. Sometimes I am happy, sometimes I'm sad.

b)/ must attend to it sometime.

I am nearly always at home, so please call in and see me sometime. c) This book will take me some time to finish.

There are some times when play is harder than work.

The word 'sometime' has the additional meaning of 'former' or 'formerly': e.g. Mr. William Harrison, sometime chairman of Wessex County Council, has died at the age of eighty-two.

QUESTIONS WE SOMETIMES ASK

1. Question: What is the English for "Он уже ездил в Париж?"

Answer: The only correct translation is: He has already been to Paris. It means that he is already here. The sentence "He has gone to Paris" means now or on his way there.

2. Question: Grammar books say that a planned future action can be expressed by either the Present

Continuous Tense or the Present Indefinite Tense. What is the difference, if any?

Answer: We use the Present Continuous Tense mainly when speaking about social arrangements: e.g.

I'm meeting my friend for lunch tomorrow. We are dining out tonight. We use the Present Indefinite with time-tables

for trains, planes, buses or ships and also when planning a program for journey: e.g. The train leaves at 5 p.m. I leave London on Monday, the 16-th. I catch the train for Leeds the next day.

3. Question: Which is preferable 'shall' or 'will' with the 1-st person in the Future Indefinite Tense? Answer: 'Shall' appears to be slowly disappearing from modern spoken English. People will always

understand you if you use 'will' with 'I' and 'we'.

4. Question: Which is correct: "She was talking over the phone for a quarter of an hour" or "She

talked

over the phone for a quarter of an hour"?

Answer: The latter. The following "unwritten rule" may be helpful: never use the Past Continuous form with 'for'.

5. Question: Which tense form (Continuous or Indefinite) would be correct to use at the beginning of

the

following paragraph: Maggy sat (or was sitting) in her small room. It was growing dark.

Answer: Both forms are perfectly correct. But the continuous form is often used as a stylistic device in sentences beginning a new paragraph.

6. Question: Which tense (Past Indefinite or Present Perfect) is used in questions beginning with 'where'?

Answer: Both. Examples: 1) Where have you put the dictionary? I can't find it. (The speaker wants to know

where the thing is now). 2) Where did you buy this lovely bag? (The speaker wants to know where the thing was before).

СИСТЕМА АНГЛИЙСКИХ ВРЕМЕННЫХ ФОРМ

THE ARTICLE

I. The article is the form-word of the noun and serves to specify it. There are three articles in Modern

English: the indefinite article, the definite article and the zero article.

II. Сравните употребление неопределенного и определенного артиклей:

Примечание. Прилагательные не всегда безразличны к артиклям. Следующие из них тяготеют к

Упражнение 1. Укажите значение артиклей в следующих предложениях:

1. Give me a red pencil. 2, Here's the red pencil you've asked for. 3. Her father was an artist. 4. The artist wants me to sit for him. 5. The sky was cloudless. 6. Jury Gagarin was the first spaceman. 7. The telephone was invented in the 19-th century. 8. Through the window he saw a woman. The woman was selling cakes.

III. Отсутствие артикля перед существительными грамматически значимо, поэтому в английской грамматике существует понятие нулевого артикля. Нулевой артикль используется:

а) с существительными во множественном числе в тех же случаях, которые требуют

неопределенного артикля для существительного в единственном числе, например: Не bought books