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a)What is the difference between the pressure groups and political parties?

b)What is the main purpose of political parties?

BRead the text. These phrases summarize the main idea of each paragraph. Match each phrase with the correct paragraph.

1.peculiar functions of parties

2.the difference between political parties and pressure groups

3.the role of parties

12.1 The Functions of Parties

The prime purpose of political parties is to win elections. This is what distinguishes them from pressure groups, which may try to influence elections but do not usually put up candidates for office. They articulate the needs of those sections of society which have created them and look to them to advance their interests. But they must go further, for to win an election they need wider support. If they wish to be in government-either in a single-party administration or some form of coalitionthen they cannot afford to follow a narrow doctrinal programme, for this would make it difficult for other parties to contemplate cooperation with them. In the words of an old quotation: Pressure groups articulate and political parties aggregate the various interests in society.’

European and other democracies are party democracies. Parties perform important functions in forging links between the individual and those in office. Without them, individual voters would have less control over those in power than they do today, and governments would function in a less cohesive and effective manner. When that cohesiveness breaks down, government is likely to be ineffective and more remote from the needs and wishes of the people.

Much party activity is concerned with the election period, but parties offer other opportunities for participation and involvement over a continuous period. Among their specific functions, they:

contest elections in order to compete with other parties for elective office;

coordinate political campaigns;

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put together coalition of different interests, for a variety of groups and individuals can come together under one broad umbrella, so that any government that emerges is likely to have widespread support in the community;

activate voters by mobilizing their support via campaigning, rallies and emblems of identification, giving them an opportunity for political involvement;

incorporate policy ideas from individuals and groups which are outside the political mainstream, responding to changes suggested by third parties and protest movements;

articulate policies, educating the voters and providing them with a choice of alternatives.

COMPREHENSION

Complete the following by inserting one word in each gap; the first letter of each missing word is given.

a)The prime p______ of political parties is to win elections.

b)Pressure groups do not usually put up c_____ for office.

c)To win elections, pressure groups need wide s_________ .

d)Political parties aggregate the various interests in s______

society.

e)European and other countries are party d______________ .

f)Much party activity is concerned with the e_______ period.

g)One of the functions of parties is to provide the voters with a choice of a ________ .

VOCABULARY PRACTICE

A Read the words and guess their meaning. Mind the stress.

BGive nouns derived from these verbs.

elect, create, support, cooperate, perform, function, participate, involve, coordinate, identify, educate.

DFind the sentences containing the word combinations from Exercise C in the text, read and translate these sentences.

ELearn the active vocabulary.

READING PRACTICE

AScan Text 11.2 and answer the questions:

a)In which countries the significance of parties is great?

b)In which countries parties are rather weak?

BRead the text and complete the information below.

1. Today political parties exist in different forms under …... . 2. Parties are an essential feature of any …………………... . 3. In many countries of Western Europe parties have a large

…………………. and a high degree of …………………. . 4. In the USA, parties are noticeably …………………….... . 5. Britain is the country which has ……………………….... .

12.2The Role of Parties in Modern Democracies

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Political parties are now accepted as an essential feature of any liberal democracy. They are existing in different forms under different political systems. They bring together a variety of different interests in any society, and by doing so, ‘overcome geographical distances’. Via the electoral process, they determine the shape of governments.

Parties have contrasting significance in different democracies. In Britain and the rest of Western Europe they are much stronger than in the USA, where they are noticeably weak. In much of Western Europe they have a large membership, a reasonably coherent ideology and a high degree of discipline among members of parliament. In the USA, none of these factors apply. In parts of the country they hardly seem to exist between elections. Britain has party government. At election time, a party seeks to capture the reins of power and win a mandate to govern. To do this, it requires a majority of seats in the House of Commons. If it obtains a working majority, it can then expect to control the machinery of government until the next election is called. Having control of the executive branch and being in a position to dominate the legislature, it will be able to carry out its manifesto. Its leaders know that they can normally count on the support of their MPs to ensure that their programme passes through Parliament.

The situation is different in the United States. America lacks the concentration of power possessed by the British Executive and has a more dispersed system of government. Presidents may have grand ideas for action, but they cannot anticipate such a relatively easy ride for their plans. Because Congress has the role of acting as a counter-balance to the executive branch, it takes the task of scrutinizing White House proposals seriously. In any case, the President’s policies must be approved by the House of Representatives and the Senate before they can become law. In domestic as well as in foreign policy, the President can seldom count upon the automatic support of Congress, even when his own party has a majority in both the Senate and the House. Therefore, he must be able to convince Congressmen, the Representatives and the Senators of his point of view. He must bargain and compromise. This is a major difference between the American system and those in which the nation’s leader represents the majority party or parties, that is, parliamentary systems.

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In terms of size and number, political parties are growing nowadays. At the beginning of the century, they were confined mainly to Europe and North America, elsewhere they were quite weak or nonexistent. In the late 20th century, parties are found practically everywhere in the world. Today they are larger, stronger and better organized than those of the late 19th-the beginning of the 20th centuries.

COMPREHENSION

Markthe statements True or False according to the information in the text. Justify your answer by reference to the text.

1.Today political parties are considered an essential feature of any liberal democracy.

2.Via electoral process, parties determine the living standard of people.

3.Parties have the same significance in different democracies.

4.In many countries of Western Europe, parties have a large membership and a high degree of discipline.

5.In the USA, as well as in the rest of Western Europe, parties are rather strong.

6.Britain has party government.

7.In the USA, the President can seldom count upon the support of Congress.

VOCABULARY PRACTICE

A Read the words and guess their meaning. Mind the stress.

BAdd nouns to the following adjectives to form phrases as they occurtogetherinthetext.Translatethesephrasesinto Russian.

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AScan Text 13.1 and answer the questions:

a)In which way can social security be provided?

b)What are the ultimate aims of social security?

c)In which way is the cost of social security financed in most countries?

BRead the text. Find the information referring to:

1. the three criteria defining a social security system;

2. sources of financing the cost of social security;

3. fundamental purpose of social security.

13.1 Social Security

Social security is any of the measures established by legislation to maintain individual or family income. Social security may provide cash benefits to persons faced with sickness and disability, unemployment, crop failure, loss of the marital partner, maternity, responsibility for the care of young children, or retirement from work. Social security benefits may be provided in cash for medical need, rehabilitation, domestic help during illness at home, or funeral expenses. Social security may be provided by court order (e.g., to compensate accident victims), by employers, by central or local government departments.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) uses three criteria to define a social security system. First, the objective of the system must be to grant curative or preventive medical care, to maintain income in case of involuntary loss of earnings, or to grant supplementary income to persons having family responsibilities. Second, the system must be set up by legislation that attributes specified individual rights to a public, semipublic, or autonomous body. And third, the system should be administered by a public, semipublic, or autonomous body.

An alternative but wider term for social security in the countries that are members of the European Union is social protection, which includes voluntary schemes not set up under legislation. For example, in the United Kingdom, only statutory benefits are regarded as social security. The term social services is used to cover social security; health, education, and housing services. In the United States the term social security is restricted to the federal social insurance system which in Europe would be

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called social assistance. In some countries (for example, Denmark and the United Kingdom) the reduction of poverty historically has been a central aim of social security policy.

A report prepared by 10 international experts appointed by the director of the ILO, set out the ultimate aims of social security. Its fundamental purpose is to give individual and families the confidence that their level of living and quality of life will not be greatly eroded by any social or economic eventuality. This involves not just meeting needs as they arise but also preventing risks from arising, and helping individuals and families to make the best possible adjustment when they are faced with disabilities.

Approximately 140 countries have some type of social security scheme. Nearly all of these countries have schemes covering work-related injury and old-age pensions. Over half have provisions for sickness, and nearly half have family allowances.

In most countries the major part of the cost of social security is paid for by proportional contributions of earnings from employers and employees. The maximum varies from around 50 percent above average earnings (e.g., France, Ireland, and Italy) to twice average earnings (e.g., Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States) or higher (Norway).

COMPREHENSION

A1. In what connection are Denmark and the United Kingdom mentioned?

2.In what connection are France, Italy and Ireland mentioned?

BArrange these sentences in the correct order according to the information in the text.

1.In some countries the alternative term ‘social protection’ is used.

2.The size of contributions to pay the cost of social security differs in different countries.

3.Social security may be provided by central or local government departments, by employers, by court order.

4.Nearly 140 countries have some type of social security scheme.

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5.Three criteria are used by the International Labour Organization to define a social security system.

VOCABULARY PRACTICE

A Read the words and guess their meaning. Mind the stress.

CFind the sentences containing the words from Exercise B in the text, read and translate these sentences into Russian.

DYou are all journalists. Choose someone to act as a representative of the International Labour Organizartion and answer your questions.

DISCUSSION

The social security system of the Republic of Belarus.

AScan Text 13.2. Formulate the key idea of each paragraph.

BRead the text and match the questions below (1-5) with the paragraphs in the text.

1.Who does the social insurance system cover?

2.What categories of citizens are covered by special insurance systems?

3.Who determines the wage base in the country?

4.What does the sickness benefit equal to?

5.What do medical services granted by government health providers include?

13.2 Social Security Programmes in Belarus

To some extent, all modern countries have social security programmes. And so does the Republic of Belarus.