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In nearly all political systems the 20th century has seen an alarming increase in the powers of chief executives. The office of the presidency in the United States, like the office of prime minister in Britain, has greatly enlarged the scope of its authority.

The executive is often delegated some legislative power, mainly the power to issue regulations or executive orders which complete a piece of legislation with technical details or points which might change frequently (e.g. fees for government services). The executive may also have powers to issue legislation during a state of emergency.

COMPREHENSION

Make the sentences True or False according to the information in the text. Justify your answers by reference to the text.

1.The executive is responsible for the day-to-day management of the state.

2.The executive is identified by the leader of a political party.

3.Political executives include not only chief executives.

4.Sometimes the executive is delegated some legislative power.

5.The executive may not have to issue legislation, even in emergency cases.

VOCABULARY TASKS

A Read the words and guess their meaning. Mind the stress.

BMake these verbs and nouns as they occur together in the text.

DGive the Russian equivalents for the following word combinations.

to be responsible for; day-to day management; to include heads of state; to issue legislation; to share power; whereas; to be subject to; with the consent; a chief executive; a government employee; to wield political power; to delegate powers; the scope of authority; a state of emergency.

ELearn the active vocabulary

F Make a summary of the text

READING PRACTICE

AScan Text 8.3 and answer the questions:

a)What countries are mentioned in the text?

b)In what connection are the United States and Germany mentioned?

c)find the sentences which describe:

the definition of the judiciary under the doctrine of the separation of powers;

the structure of established court systems;

types of local courts.

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B Read the text. Formulate the key idea of each paragraph.

8.3 The Judiciary

In the law, the judiciary is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state, a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. The term is also used to refer collectively to the judges, magistrates and other adjudicators who form the core of a judiciary, as well as the support personnel who keep the system running smoothly.

Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, ‘the judiciary is the branch of government primarily responsible for interpreting the law’. It construes the laws enacted by the legislature.

Like legislators and executives, judges are major participants in the policy-making process. The process of judicial decision making, or adjudication, is distinctive, however, for it is concerned with specific cases in which an individual has come into conflict with society by violating its norms or in which individuals have come into conflict with one another.

In common law jurisdiction, courts interpret law, including constitutions, statutes, and regulations. In civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are, at least in theory, prohibited from creating law. In socialist law, the primary responsibility for interpreting the law belongs to the legislature.

Established court systems are found in all advanced political systems. Usually there are two judicial hierarchies, one dealing with civil and the other with criminal cases, each with a large number of local courts, a lesser number at the level of the province or the region, and one or more courts at the national level. This is the pattern of judicial organization in Britain, for example. In some countries-for example, in Francethe distinction is not between courts dealing with criminal cases and other courts dealing with civil cases but rather between those that handle all civil and criminal cases and those that deal with administrative cases. Reflecting the federal organization of its government, the United States has two court systems: one set of national courts and 50 sets of state courts. By contrast, Germany, which is federal in government organization, possesses only a single integrated court system.

Local courts are found in all systems and are usually of two types. The first type deals with petty offences and may include a traffic court, a municipal court, a small-claims court. The second

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type, sometimes called trial courts, are courts of first instance in which most cases of major importance are begun.

In all systems there are national supreme courts that hear appeals and exercise original jurisdiction in cases of the greatest importance.

COMPREHENSION

Arrange these sentences in the logical order according to the information in the text.

1.Local courts are usually of two types.

2.Usually, there two judicial hierarchies in established court systems.

3.Judicial system is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state.

4.Judges are major participants in the policy-making process.

5.The judiciary construes the laws enacted by the legislature.

VOCABULARY PRACTICE

A Read the words and guess their meaning. Mind the stress.

BWhich of the word combinations below associate with the judiciary characteristics? Translate these word combinations into Russian.

to create laws; to administer justice; to deal with civil cases; to grant equal rights; to dissolve Parliament; small-claims courts; to hear appeals; to possess two chambers; to resolve disputes; to interpret the law; to amend laws.

CMatch the first half of each sentence with the most appropriate second half.

1.Judicial system is …………………………………………

2.The judiciary is ……………………………………………

3.Judges are …………………………………………………

4.In common law jurisdiction, courts ………………………

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5.There are usually two judicial hierarchies in ……………..

6.Established court systems ………………………………...

7.National supreme courts ………………………….………

a)……………………………………………... interpret law.

b)………………………… are found in all political systems.

c)……………………………….. the branch of government responsible for interpreting the law.

d)……………………………………………… hear appeals.

e)…………….. a system of courts which administer justice.

f)………………………………... established court systems.

g)………... major participants in the policy-making process.

DFind in the text the equivalents for the following word combinations.

судебная система (власть); отправлять правосудие; разрешать спорные вопросы; разделение власти; отвечать за что-л.; толковать закон; вводить закон (постановлять); принятие решений; нарушать нормы; обычное право; запрещать; иметь дело с; гражданские дела; уголовные дела; суд первой инстанции; верховный суд; рассматривать апелляционные жалобы.

ELearn the active vocabulary.

F Make a summary of the text.

UNIT 9

STATE STRUCTURE OF BELARUS READING PRACTICE

AScan Text 9.1. Which paragraph describe:

a)the document that lines out the structure of the Government of Belarus and their duties.

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b)the measures that the President takes to protect the sovereignty of the Republic of Belarus.

BRead the text and answer these questions:

1.What is the central body of state administration?

2.What branches is the Government of Belarus divided into?

3.Who represents the Republic of Belarus in the relations with other states?

4.Who appoints and recalls diplomatic representatives of the Republic of Belarus in foreign countries?

5.In what cases can the President introduce the state of emergency?

9.1 The Government of Belarus

The Government-the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus-is the central body of state administration, the executive power in the Republic of Belarus. The Government performs daily functions for the organization of the state. In its activity, the Government is accountable to the President and responsible to Parliament.

The structure of the government and their duties are lined out in the Belarusian Constitution and by laws passed since its adoption.

The Government itself is divided into three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial.

The President of the Republic of Belarus is the official Head of State and is considered the highest government official. The President embodies the unity of the people, guarantees the implementation of the guidelines of home and foreign policy. The President represents the Republic of Belarus in the relations with other states and international organizations. The President takes measures to protect the sovereignty of the Republic of Belarus, its national security and territorial integrity, ensures political and economic stability, continuity and interaction of bodies of state power. The President is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus.

In conformity with the Constitution the President of the Republic of Belarus:

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appoints national referenda;

appoints regular and extraordinary elections to the House of Representatives, the Council of the Republic and local representative bodies;

forms, abolishes and reorganizes the Administration of the President of the Republic of Belarus, other bodies of state administration;

appoints the Prime Minister of the Republic of Belarus with the consent of the House of Representatives;

with the consent of the Council of the Republic appoints the Chairman of the Constitutional Court, the Chairman of the Supreme Court, and the Chairman of the Supreme Economic Court from among the judges of these courts;

conducts negotiations and signs international treaties, appoints and recalls diplomatic representatives of the Republic of Belarus in foreign countries and international organizations.

The President is also entitled to:

introduce the state of emergency in the territory of the Republic of Belarus in case of a natural disaster or a catastrophe;

abolish acts of the government;

exercise directly or through the bodies created by him supervision of observance of laws by local organs of administration and self-government;

exercise other powers entrusted to him by the Constitution and the laws.

COMPREHENSION

Match the sentence beginnings (1-6) to the correct endings (a-f).

1.The central body of state administration in the Republic of Belarus is ……………………………..……………………... .

2.In its activity, the government is responsible to ………..…… .

3.The President exercises powers entrusted to him by ……..…. .

4.The Prime-minister is appointed by the President ……..……. .

5.The President is entitled to …………………………..……… .

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6.The state of emergency in the territory of Belarus is introduced ……………………………………….………….. .

a)…………… with the consent of the House of Representatives.

b)……………………………………………………. Parliament.

c)………………………………. abolish acts of the government.

d)…………… only in case of a natural disaster or a catastrophe.

e)………………………………… the Constitution and the laws.

f)……………………………………... the Council of Ministers.

VOCABULARY PRACTICE

A Read the words and guess their meaning. Mind the stress.

BLook at these derivatives. Use your knowledge of English and logical reasoning to explain the meaning of each word below. Translate these word combinations into Russian.

represent –– > representative –– >representation

to represent the country; a representative democracy; a large representation.

appoint –– > appointment –– > appointed –– >appointee

to appoint a representative; hold an appointment; appointed time; to become an appointee.

protect –– > protection –– > protective

to protect national security; social protection; protective measures.

negotiate –– > negotiations –– > negotiated

to negotiate entry into WTO; to conduct negotiations; negotiated peace.

supervise –– > supervision –– > supervisory

to supervise the performance; under the supervision; a supervisory body.

govern –– > government –– > governor

to govern a country; a local government; the governor of a state.

AScan Text 9.2 and answer the questions:

a)What are the powers of the House of Representatives?

b)What are the powers of the Council of the Republic?

BRead the text. Formulate the key idea of each paragraph.

9.2 The Legislative Branch

The legislative body of the Republic of Belarus is Parliament. Parliament consists of two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Council of the Republic, with the Constitution stipulating the composition and the procedure of forming the chambers.

The House of Representatives consists of 110 deputies elected on the basis of universal, free, equal and direct suffrage, by secret ballot. Any citizen of the Republic of Belarus who has reached the age of 21 may be a deputy of the House of Representatives. The

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House of Representatives is entitled to hear the reports of the Prime Minister on the Government’s programme of activity, to give a vote of no confidence to the Government upon the request of the Prime Minister. The House of Representatives appoints elections of the President and accepts the resignation of the President.

Any draft law, unless otherwise provided by the Constitution, is first considered by the House of Representatives and then by the Council of the Republic. A draft law becomes a law upon adoption by the House of Representatives and then by the Council of the Republic with the majority of votes of the total composition of each Chamber.

The Council of the Republic is a chamber of territorial representation. Eight members of the Council of the Republic are elected from each region and the city of Minsk by secret ballot at the meetings of deputies. A deputy of the Council of the Republic must be a citizen of the Republic of Belarus who has reached the age of 30 and has been a resident in the territory of the corresponding region or the city of Minsk no less than 5 years. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president and the ability to accept or reject the bills passed from the House of Representatives.

The Council of the Republic cancels the decisions of local Councils of Deputies not conforming to the legislation and also takes a decision regarding the dissolution of the local Council of Deputies in case the requirements of the legislation are regularly and grossly violated by it, as well as in other cases provided for by the law.

The Constitution embodies the right of the Council of the Republic to consider decrees of the President on imposing the state of emergency, martial law, total or partial mobilization and to take the respective decision not later than 3 days after their submission.

The sessions of Chambers are held separately. Each chamber has its own Chairman, his/her Vice-Chairman who manages the meetings and standing order of the Chambers.

The term of office of Parliament is 4 years. The Parliament’s term of office may only be extended in case of war.

COMPREHENSION