U. S . P a t e n t a n d Tr a d e m a r k O f fi c e (USPTO) The Washington, D.C.-based American Government agency responsible for common patent protection matters for all of America’s 50 states and its territorial possessions. The USPTO allows the patenting of new and unique microbes, plants, and animals, as well as the new and unique methods to produce such biotechnology advances.

See also EUROPEAN PATENT OFFICE (EPO),

CHAKRABARTY DECISION, MICROBE, GENETIC

ENGINEERING, PLANT’S NOVEL TRAIT (PNT),

PLANT BREEDER’S RIGHTS (PBR), BIOTECHNOL-

OGY, AMERICAN TYPE CULTURE COLLECTION

(ATCC).

Ubiquitin A small protein present in all eucaryotic cells (ubiquitous) that plays an important role in “tagging” other proteins destined (marked) for destruction (via proteolytic cleavage). Such proteins are then broken down and removed because they are damaged or no longer needed by the body. Such “tagged” protein molecules are said to have been ubiquitinated. See also

OTE, PROTEIN, PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES, PROTEA-

SOMES, DENATURATION.

Ubiquitinated See UBIQUITIN.

Ultracentrifuge A high-speed centrifuge that can attain revolving speeds up to 85,000 rpm and centrifugal fields up to 500,000 times gravity. The machine is used to sediment (i.e., cause to settle out) and hence separate macromolecules (large molecules) and macromolecular structures in a mixture/solution. In general, a centrifuge is a machine that whirls test tubes around rapidly, like a merry-go-round, to force the heavier suspended materials (in the solutions in the test tubes) to the bottoms of those test tubes before the lighter material.

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FATTY ACID, DESATURASE, MONOUNSATURATED

FATS, POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS (PUFA).

UPOV See UNION FOR PROTECTION OF NEW VARI-

ETIES OF PLANTS (UPOV).

Uracil A pyrimidine base, important as a component of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Its hydro- gen-bonding counterpart in DNA is thymine.

See also PYRIMIDINE, RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA),

BASE (NUCLEOTIDE), DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

(DNA).

Urokinase A thrombolytic (i.e., clot-dissolv- ing) enzyme used as a bio-pharmaceutical.

See also THROMBOLYTIC AGENTS, TISSUE PLASMI-

NOGEN ACTIVATOR (tPA), FIBRINOLYTIC AGENTS.

USPTO See U.S. PATENT AND TRADEMARK OFFICE

(USPTO).

Vaccine Any substance, bearing antigens on its surface, that causes activation of an animal’s immune system without causing actual disease. The animal’s immune system components (e.g., antibodies) are then prepared to quickly vanquish those particular pathogens when they later enter the body. See also DNA

VACCINES, “NAKED” GENE, “EDIBLE VACCINES”,

A N T I G E N ,

HUMORAL IMMUNITY.

Vaccinia A nonpathogenic virus believed to be a (modified) form of the virus that causes cowpox. Vaccinia readily accepts genes (inserted into its genome via genetic engineering) from pathogenic viruses, so it can be used to make vaccines that do not possess the risk inherent in attenuated-virus vaccines (i.e., that the attenuated virus “revives” and causes disease). Such genetically engineered vaccinia codes for (presents) the proteins of the pathogenic virus on its surface, which activates the immune system (e.g., of vaccinated animal) to produce antibodies against that pathogenic

virus. See also VACCINE, PATHOGENIC, VIRUS,

GENE, GENE DELIVERY, GENETIC ENGINEERING,

ATTENUATED (PATHOGENS), ANTIBODY, MACRO-

PHAGE, COMPLEMENT CASCADE, CELLULAR

IMMUNE RESPONSE, PHAGOCYTE.

Vacuoles A membrane-bound sac within a cell, within which water, food, waste, or salt, etc. are temporarily stored. Also pigments, in certain plant cells. See also PLASMA MEMBRANE,

CELL, ANTHOCYANIDINS.

VAD Acronym for vitamin A deficiency. See

also GOLDEN RICE, VITAMIN, BETA CAROTENE,

CAROTENOIDS.

Vagile Wandering or roaming (e.g., a microorganism that is not attached to a solid support tends to “wander” through its environment

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as it gets pushed about by currents of air or liquid). See also SESSILE, VAGILITY.

SOYBEANS, HIGH-OLEIC OIL SOYBEANS, HIGH-

STEARATE SOYBEANS, GLUTAMATE DEHYDROGE-

NASE, HIGH-SUCROSE SOYBEANS, HIGH-LAURATE

CANOLA, HIGH-LACTOFERRIN RICE.

Van der Waals Forces The relatively weak forces of attraction between molecules that contribute to intermolecular bonding (i.e., binding together two or more adjacent molecules). Historically, it was thought that van der Waals forces were always weaker than the hydrogen bond forces responsible for intramolecular bonding. However, in 1995, Dr. Alfred French discovered that van der Waals forces are primarily responsible for holding together a mass of cellulose molecules, with hydrogen bonding playing a lesser role.

During 2000, Kellar Autumn discovered that van der Waals forces (acting between foot skin hairs and the surface climbed) are responsible for enabling the Tokay gecko (Gecko gecko) to climb vertical surfaces and also to hang upside down. These forces work (to “adhere” a gecko’s foot) even underwater or in a vacuum. See also CELLULOSE, CELLULASE,

MOLECULAR WEIGHT, WEAK INTERACTIONS.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) A human growth factor (GF) that causes growth/proliferation of blood vessels/endothelium and endothelial cells. See

also GROWTH FACTOR, ENDOTHELIUM, ENDOTHE-

LIAL CELLS.

Vector The agent used (by researchers) to carry new genes into cells. Plasmids currently are the biological vectors of choice; though viruses and other biological vectors such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacteria or BACs are increasingly being used for this purpose. Nonbiological vectors include the metal microparticles (coated with genes) which are “shot” into cells by the Biolistic®

gene gun. See also PLASMID, GENE, CELL, RET-

VROVIRAL VECTORS, PROTOPLASM, AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFACIENS, BACTERIA, BIOLISTIC® GENE GUN,

MICROPARTICLES, BACULOVIRUS EXPRESSION VECTORS (BEVs), BAC.

Vertical Gene Transfer See OUTCROSSING.

Very Low-Density Lipoproteins (VLDL)

VLDLs and LDLPs are the specific lipoproteins that are most likely to deposit cholesterol on artery walls inside the human body,

which increases risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). See also LOW-DENSITY LIPOPRO-

TEINS (LDLP), LIPOPROTEIN, APOLIPOPROTEINS,

CHOLESTEROL.

Vesicle A small vacuole. See also VESICULAR

TRANSPORT, VACUOLES.

Vesicular Transport (of a protein) One of three means for a protein molecule to pass between compartments within eucaryotic cells. The compartment “wall” (membrane) possesses a “sensor” (receptor) that detects the presence of correct protein (e.g., after that protein has been synthesized in the cell’s ribosomes), then bulges outward along with that protein molecule. The membrane bulge containing protein then “breaks off” and carries (transports) the protein to its destination in another compartment in the cell. See also

PROTEIN, EUCARYOTE, CELL, RIBOSOMES, MICROTUBULES, SIGNALING, VAGINOSIS, ENDOCYTOSIS,

GATED TRANSPORT.

Viral Transactivating Protein The specific protein used by a lytic virus to “switch on” the cascade of gene regulation by which that virus “takes over” a healthy cell and subverts its molecular processes (machinery) to produce virus components. This (transactivating) protein is key to the whole lytic cycle of the virus and therefore a potential target for therapeutic intervention. See also LYTIC

INFECTION, VIRUS, PROTEIN, CELL, GENE CASCADE.

Virtual HTS See IN SILICO SCREENING, HIGH-

THROUGHPUT SCREENING (HTS).

Virus A simple, noncellular particle (entity) that can reproduce only inside living cells (of other organisms), which was first proved to exist in 1892 by Dimitry Ivanovsky. The simple structure of viruses is their most important characteristic. Most viruses consist only of a genetic material — either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid) — and a protein coating. This (combination) material is categorized as a nucleoprotein. Some viruses also have membranous envelopes (coatings).

Viruses are “alive” in that they can reproduce themselves — although only by taking over a cell’s “synthetic genetic machinery” — but they have none of the other characteristics of living organisms. Viruses cause a large variety of significant diseases in plants