2 Unit 2 History of Architecture: from Ancient Times to Gothic Art

2.1 Pretext exercises

2.1.1Warming-up

1)What wonders of the world do you know?

2)What is the only remained wonder of the world?

3)Who is supposed to be the first named architect?

2.1.2Read the words. Pay attention to the letters in italics

[u]wood, took, room

2.1.4 Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms

2.1.5 Find proper Russian words with the same roots as the following English words:

Egypt, period, patronage, technique, metal, progress, massive, monument, construction, arch, pyramids, column, cornice, characteristic, obelisk, symbolical, material, relief, colonnade, universal, traditional, style, elegant, gigantic

2.1.6 Choose the proper English word:

gigantic

2.1.7 Find the English equivalents for the following Russian words:

Aстоечно-балочная конструкция; поощрение; колонна; высокое мастерство; скат; сильно суженный кверху пилон; траурный; ложный свод; резной рельефный орнамент; воздвигать; божество; выдающийся; последователь; уцелеть; возрождать

Bdivinity; pillar; to revive; post-and-lintel construction; to survive; corbel vault; excellence; outstanding; ramp; encouragement; to erect; successor; incised relief; funerary; steeply; buttered pylon

2.1.8 Form all possible word combination:

2.1.9 Read the following word combinations and translate them into Russian:

the 3rd millenium B.C.; to work under the patronage of the King; tremendous progress; the most outstanding achievements; massive funerary monuments; ancient Egyptian architecture; Old Kingdom; on the desert edge; the only remained wonder of the world; the world’s first large-scale monument in stone; the great gods of earth and sky; new level of excellence; less durable materials; great simplicity; new blossoming of arts and crafts; to give encouragement; great temples and palaces; the only womanpharaoh; under the rule of; numerous temples of traditional style; slightly more elegant, less crushingly inhuman

2.2 Who doesn’t dream about travelling to Egypt? We think all the architects do. So let’s read the text and have a wonderful journey

Text 2A

Egyptian Architecture

The architecture of Egypt developed from the 3rd millennium B.C. to the Roman period. During this period artist and craftsmen were drawn to the court to work under the patronage of the King and his great nobles. Techniques of the working in stone, wood and metal made tremendous progress. The most outstanding achievements of this period are massive funerary monuments and temples build of stone for permanence, featuring only post-and lintel construction, corbel vaults without arches or vaulting, and pyramids. This architecture gave the world the earliest building in dressed stone, invented the column, capital and cornice. Features characteristic of the ancient Egyptian architecture also include the obelisk, the steeply battered pylon, the symbolical lotus column, and incised relief decoration without any structural relevance.

The pyramids of the Old Kingdom, majestically planted on the desert edge, are the most spectacular of all funerary works and the only remained wonder of the world. The world’s first large-scale monument in stone is Zoser’s necropolis at Sahara, built it 2766 B.C. by the Imhotep, the earliest named architect. These monuments celebrated the divinity of the kings of Egypt, linking the people with the great gods of earth and sky.

During the prosperous period know as the Middle Kingdom fortresses were built to defend the southern and eastern borders. Craftsmen achieved new levels of excellence. Very little architecture remains, but what has survived shows great simplicity and refinement, less durable materials were used. The example is the pyramid of Sesostris I at Lisht.

Great buildings began to be erected once again in the New Kingdom(1570-1085 B.C.), marking new blossoming of the arts and crafts of ancient Egypt. The kings gave encouragement to artists and craftsmen by ordering great temples and palaces to be built throughout Egypt. The temple walls were covered with reliefs celebrating the achievements of the kings and the power of the gods. The most notable monuments are the Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatsheput (the only woman –pharaoh) at Deir el Bahari, with its pillared halls, colonnades, and gigantic ramps connecting the different levels; the magnificent Great Temple at Karnak devoted to Amon as the universal god of Egypt.

The final revival took place under the rule of the Ptolemies, the successors of Alexander the great, who built numerous temples of traditional style but slightly more elegant and less crushingly inhuman. The finest examples that survive are the Temple of Horus at Eftu and the temples on the islands of Philae.

2.3 Exercise to the text

2.3.1Find the false sentences using the information from the text. Correct the false sentences:

1)Techniques of working in reinforced concrete made tremendous progress.

2)The architecture of Egypt gave the world the column, capital and cornice.

3)The world’s first large-scale monument in stone is the pyramid of Sesostris I

at Lisht.

4)Many architectural monuments of the Middle Kingdom can be seen nowadays.

5)New blossoming of the arts and crafts of ancient Egypt began in the New

Kingdom.

6)The final revival took place under Alexander the Great.

2.3.2 Fill in the gaps with the words given below:

1)In ancient ... art of building only ... constructions were applied.

2)What the architecture of Egypt gave the ... the earliest buildings in ... , columns ... and cornice.

3)The pyramids of the Old Kingdom are the most ... of all ... works.

4)The world’s first ... monument is stone Zoser’s ... .

5)The most remarkable monument of the New Kingdom use colossal ...

linking the various ... .

capitals; necropolis; post-and lintel; levels; ramps; world; dressed stone; spectacular; Egyptian; large-scale; funerary.

2.3.3 Answer the following questions:

1)When did the old ancient Egyptian architecture develop?

2)Into what period could it be classified?

3)What typical structures did the architecture of Egypt produce?

4)What system of construction was used in Ancient Egypt?

5)What elements did this architecture invert?

6)What is the only remained wonder of the world?

7)Who was the earliest named architect?

8)How do the structures of the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms differ?

9)When did the final revival of ancient Egyptian architecture take place?

2.3.4Find in the text and put down key words that can be used to speak about Egyptian architecture

2.3.5Summarize your knowledge of the question under consideration. Discuss it with your partner. Use exercise 2.3.3 as a plan

2.4 Read and translate the text using a dictionary

Text 2B

Ancient Greek Architecture

Commenting on the building of the Acropolis at Athens, Plutarch remarked: “They were created in a short time for all time. Each in its fineness was even then at once age-old; but in the freshness of its vigour it is, even to the present day, recent and newly made.” No better description of the aims and achievements of Greek architecture has ever been given.

The ambition of the ancient Greek architects was to discover eternally valid rules of form and proportion; to erect buildings human in scale yet suited to the divinity of their gods; to create, in other words, a classically ideal architecture. Their success may be measured by the fact that their works have been copied on and off for some 2,500 years and have never been superseded.

The Greek derived much from other Mediterranean civilizations – the plan of the temple from Crete, the columnar form from Egypt, the capital from Assyria.

One of the greatest monuments of ancient Greek architecture is the Athenian Acropolis. The Acropolis, the Greek for upper town, stands on a low rocky hill and contains the ruins of several ancient Greek architectural monuments.

The Parthenon, a stately building with an eight – column facade honouring the goddess Athena, was built by Ictinus and Callicrates in 447 – 438 B.C. Next to the Parthenon is an Ionic temple of Athena, the Erechtheum, built by anonymous architect in 421 – 406 B.C. In has the unparalleled portrayal of a contemporary event on the frieze of the building. It also had to serve different cults, which meant that its architect had to design a building with three porches and three different floor levels.

The monumental gateway to the Acropolis, the Propylaea was designed by Mnesicles, who had to adapt the rigid convention of colonnade construction to a steeply rising site. In the precision and finish of their execution, which complements the brilliant innovation of their design, these buildings had no rival in the Greek world.

The Greeks gave rise to some orders of architecture. The orders are the highest accomplishment of the pillar and beam construction. In classical architecture, the order is a column with base (usually), shaft, and entablature, decorated and proportioned according to one of the accepted modes. The entablature is the upper part of a classical order, between column and pediment, consisting of architrave (the lowermost part), frieze (in the middle), and cornice (the uppermost part).

The Greek invented the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric order is the oldest and the simplest one. It has baseless columns as those of the Parthenon, the spreading capitals, and triglyph-metope frieze above the column.

The Ionic order appeared later, in eastern Greece. It is characterized by a moulded base; tall, column shafts with 24 semi – circular flutes separated by flat fillets. Its capitals have large volutes.

The Corinthian order was an Anthenian invention of the 5th century B.C. It is the slenderest and most ornate of the three Greek orders. In its general proportion it is very like the Ionic. It has Ionic capitals elaborated with acanthus leaves. At first it was used for interiors only.

Notes to the text:

porch – портик, крытая галерея rival – соперник

shaft – столб, стержень entablature – антаблемент flute – каннелюра, желобок fillet – поясок, углубление

volute – волюта, спираль, завиток

mould – облом; профиль; форма; опалубка pediment – фронтон

2.4.1 Give English equivalents for the words given below(B) and fill in the gaps in the following sentences (A):

A1) The Greek architects tried to discover ... ... rules of form and proportion.

2)They wanted ... a classically ideal architecture.

3)The works of the ancient Greek architects have never been ... .

4)Buildings of the Anthenian Acropolis had no ... in the Greek world.

B соперник; превосходить; вечно имеющие силу; круто поднимающийся; создать; строгий; древний; приспособить

2.4.2 Choose the correct definition (A) from the words given below (B):

A1) The upper most member of the entablature.

2)The simplest order of architecture.

3)The middle part of the entablature.

4)The spiral scrolls of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals.

5)The lowest part of the entablature.

6)A particular style of column with its entablature, having standard details.

7)The slenderest and most ornate order of Greek architecture.

8)The upper part of a classical order between the columns and pediment.

9)The triangular part at the top of front of building

Bvolutes; order; frieze; the Corinthian; entablature; cornice; pediment; the Doric; architrave

2.4.3.Complete the following sentences:

1)The main aim of the ancient Greek architects was ...

a) to erect huge temples

b) to discover rules of form and proportion 3) to built fortresses

2)The Greek derived the column from ...

a)Egypt

b)Assyria

c)ancient Rome

3)The Acropolis means ...

a)upper town

b)a plat form

c)a cathedral

4)The Parthenon was built by ...

a)an anonymous architect

b)Imhotep

c)Ictinus and Callicrates

5)The Erechtheum was also designed to serve different ...

a)architects

b)cities

c)cults

6)The Propylae was ... to the Acropolis

a)a temple

b)a gateway

c)a staircase

7)The Doric order has ...

a)a moulded base

b)a slim fluted column

c)a baseless column

8)The Doric order was used in ...

a)the Erechtheum

b)the Parthenon

c)the Propylae

9)The Ionic capitals have ...

a)large volutes

b)acanthus leaves

c)geometrical ornament

10)The Corinthian order was ...

a)the oldest

b)the simplest

c)the most ornate

2.5 Read the text and tell about the architecture of Residential and Public Buildings of the Roman Empire

Text 2C

Roman Architecture

Many seeds, derived from early Grecian and Etruscan designs, had already been sown in Rome. Modern knowledge of Roman architecture derives primary from the remains scattered throughout the area of the empire. Another source of information is a vast store of records. Especially important is a book on architecture by the architect

Vitruvius “De Architectura” (27 B.C.). It consists of ten books and covers almost every aspect on architecture.

Whereas Greek architecture is tectonic, built up from logical series of horizontals and verticals, Roman architecture is plastic with much use of rounded forms (arch, vault, and dome). The Romans were more experimental than the Greeks in their construction. Modifying and expanding earlier form to suit their purpose, the Romans often used supporting columns for decorative effects, while the walls became the essential elements, and they also made extensive use of coloured marble. But the true greatness of the Romans lay in the creation of interior space.

In Roman architecture there were three types of houses: the domus or town – house; the insula or multi – storey apartment house, and the villa or country house. The domus was usually of one storey only and inward – looking, consisted of suites of rooms grouped around a central hall, or atrium (a quadrangular court) and one or more peristyle courts. The insula had several identical but separate floors and was often vaulted throughout with concrete construction. Independent apartments had separate entrances with direct access to the street. The villa was derived from the traditional farm

– house and was more casual in plan than the domus.

The Romans were great builders and engineers famous for their factories, roads, aqueducts and bridges, grand thermae and amphitheaters, theatres, and temples.

The greatest surviving circular temple of antiquity, and in many respects the most important Roman building, is the Panthenon in Rome. In consists of rotunda about 142 feet in diameter surrounded by concrete walls 20 feet thick, in which are alternate circular and rectangular niches. Light is admitted through a central opening, or oculus, at the crown of the dome. The rotunda and the dome are among the finest examples of Roman concrete work. The interior was lined with marble.

The Romans also developed the Tuscan and Composite orders. The Tuscan order is a simplified version of the Roman Doric, having a plan frieze and no mutules in the cornice. The Composite order is a late Roman combination of elements from the Ionic and Corinthian orders.

The evolution of new constructive elements was aided by important technical discoveries. A part from stone Roman architecture soon began to make use of bricks, which at the peak of Roman architecture became the main building material because of their adaptability. The invention of concrete provided a material that encouraged the monumental tendencies of Roman architecture.

2.5.1 Find the false sentences using the information from the text. Correct them:

1) “De Architectura” by Vitruvius is the source of information on Roman architecture.

2)Roman architecture is tectonic, built up from series of horizontals and verticals.

3)The Romans were not so experimental as the Greeks in their construction.

4)In Rome the column was often degraded to merely decorative use.

5)There were four main types of houses.

6)The Panthenon is the greatest temple of ancient Greek architecture

7)The Romans added the Tuscan and Composite orders.

2.5.2Give the English equivalents:

руины обширный запас

освещать почти все вопросы по архитектуре изменять ранее существующие нормы декоративные цели важный элемент подлинная величина анфилада комнат отдельный вход облицевать мрамором

новые элементы строительства важные технические открытия основной строительный материал

2.5.3Translate into English

Колизей

Самым важным амфитеатром в Риме был Колизей, построенный в 70/75 – 82 гг. НЭ Он занимал территорию в 6 акров(2,4 га) и вмещал 50 000 зрителей. Амфитеатр имеет эллиптическую форму и высоту 57м. 80 входов в амфитеатр расположены так, что здание можно было покинуть очень быстро. Всё строение выполнено из бетона, внешняя сторона облицована травертином, а внутренняя – мрамором. Сейчас Колизей – один из наиболее знаменитых памятников древности во всём мире.

2.5.4Choose the right term to the following definitions:

1)town – house

a)domus

b)dome

c)porch

2)oculus

a)door

b)shell

c)central opening of the dome

3)a quadrangular court of the house

a)rotunda

b)basilica

c)atrium

4)country house

a)villa

b)thermae

c)terrace

5)blocks of flats

a)amphitheaters

b)niches

c)insulae

2.5.5With your partner, speak on one of the following topics:

1)Ancient Greek and Roman Architecture compared

2)Roman Domestic Architecture

3)Ancient Greek and Roman Dwellings Compared

2.6 Read and translate the text. Find sentences containing completely new information

Text 2D

Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture

The architecture of Byzantium, or Eastern Roman Empire, was the culmination of Early Christian architecture. This style can be traced back to the period after 330 BC. The art characteristic of the developed Byzantine Empire had enormous influence on both East and West, spread widely and lasted throughout the Middle Ages until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453. The dominant Byzantine art was architecture. It was characterized by round arches, elaborate columns, richness in decorative elements and colour. But the chief contribution of the Byzantine style to the architecture of the world was large pendentive-supported dome.

Brick was the main material used for the construction of Byzantine churches. It was covered externally with plaster and internally with thin marble ladoes and mosaics above.

The Byzantine style reached a high point in the reign of the Emperor Justinian (527-565). He built and rebuilt 26 churches, many hospitals, bridges aqueducts, and fortress.

The outstanding masterpiece of Byzantine church architecture is Hagia or Saint Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Hagia Sophia remained unique and no attempts was thereafter made by Byzantine Builders to emulate it. Its plan may be defined as a Greek cross inscribed in a square (typically Byzantine) with a narthex at the west end. The chief feature is the huge dome, approximately 32.6 m in diameter, rising 56 m above the floor. Its carried on pendentives. There are also half-domes at two ends which are, in turn, carried by smaller semidomed exedrae. The interior surface of the edifice is richly decorated.

Among the greatest examples of Byzantine buildings are the basilican St. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna; the octagonal St. Vitale, Ravenna; St. Marco, Venice; the cathedral of St. Sophia in Kiev and others.

Notes to the text:

pendentives – паруса свода или купола plaster – штукатурка

to emulate – стремиться превзойти edifice – здание, сооружение exedra – экседра, вестибюль

2.6.1 Complete sentences choosing the variant corresponding to the contents of the text:

1)The Byzantine style developed after ...

a)1453

b)330 BC

c)527 AD

2)The Byzantine style spread widely in the ...

a)East and West

b)North

c)West

3)The dominant Byzantine art was ...

a)sculpture

b)painting

c)architecture

4)Byzantine churches were made mainly of ...

a)stone

b)brick

c)concrete

5)The chief contribution of the Byzantine art the world’s architecture was ...

a)pointed arch

b)architectural order

c)pendentives

6)Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is ...

a)church

b)palace

c)castle

7)The Byzantine style reached its culmination in the ...

a)4th century BC

b)11th century

c)6th century

2.6.2Find proper equivalents for the words and word combinations in italics:

1)Byzantine architecture was the culmination of Early Christian architecture.

2)It is characterized by large pendentive-supported domes, round arches and elaborate columns.

3)The Byzantine style began to influence architecture in Italy.

4)The interior surface of the edifice is richly decorated.

5)The outstanding masterpiece of Byzantine church architecture is Hagia Sophia.

internal; started; huge; pillars art of building; remarkable; cupolas; ornamented; religious; high point; affect; circular; building

2.6.3 Read the text once more and tell about the main features of the Byzantine

style

2.7 You are asked to make a short report on the problem of the Romanesque architecture. Use the following text and present information on:

1)subdivisions of Romanesque architecture;

2)its main features;

Text 2E

The Romanesque style

The Romanesque style was a compound of many influences – Roman, Byzantine, Viking, Celtic, Muslim. It followed the Early Christian style and preceded the introduction of the Gothic style, c.1200. The principal countries in which Romanesque architecture flourished were France, England, Italy, Germany and Spain. This style must have appeared first in Italy, in Lombardy, late in the 9th century.

Its is usually subdivided into pre – Romanesque, which includes the Lombardic, Carolingian, and Ottonian or Rhenish styles as well as Saxon and Romanesque proper beginning from c. AD 1000.

From the Roman tradition, the pre – Romanesque architects adopted characteristic features: the semicircular arch, modified and simplified from of the Corinthian column with its capital of acanthus leaves. Occasionally, at an early period, they used carved fragments of antique buildings. After 1050 various systems were developed to vault major spans: tunnel vaults in France, often pointed (Burgundy, Province) and also in Spain; groin vaults in Germany; ribbed vaults at Durham and Italy. The Romanesque period was the great age of European monasticism. The architectural work of this period there for consist almost exclusively domestic buildings have survived.

The greatest examples of this style are Benedictine abbey church at Jumieges, Normandy (1036-1066); S. Ambrogio, Milan, Italy (1140); Sompting church in Succex (11th century); Augsburg Cathedral, Germany.

2.7.1 Write the summary of the text in Russian

2.8 Read the text to find answers to the given questions

Text 2F

The Gothic Style

1 Where and when did the Gothic architecture develop?

This style represented the High Middle Ages in Western Europe. The architecture of this period was termed Gothic during the Renaissance because of its association with the barbarian north. Now this term is used to describe the important international style in most countries of Europe from the early 12th century to the advent of the Renaissance in the 5th century.

2 What architectural elements characterize great Gothic cathedrals?

Gothic architecture raised buildings to soaring heights, stressing the vertical principle throughout in the compositional rhythm of all parts of the structure. At the technical level Gothic architecture is characterized by the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, the development of the exterior flying buttress, gradual reduction of the walls to a system of richly decorated fenestration. Gothic cathedrals depended for their enrichment chiefly upon sculpture and stained glass.

3 How does the classification of the Gothic phases differ in France, Germany and England?

It is generally said that in France and Germany this style is subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Gothic. The French middle phase is referred to as Rayonnant, the late phase as Flamboyant. In English architecture the usual subdivisions are Early English, Decorative, and Perpendicular.

4 What are the main features of Gothic architecture represented in the Rheims Cathedral?

The Rheims Cathedral, erected between 1211 and 1430, illustrates the main features of Gothic architecture. An examination of the facade indicates certain qualities inherent in Gothic church design. The lower portion of the facade contains huge portals which prove to be grand and imposing entrance ways. Directly above the main portal a huge rose window appears, flanked by monumental towers which reach far above the main portion of the cathedral. The towers create vertical thrusts. The rose window and the stained-glass windows along the cathedral’s sides flood the church with the tined light providing luminous richness to the interior. Minor towers with decorative pinnacles add accents to main tower, and niches containing religious statuary are incorporated in the facade.

2.9 Read the dialogue in pairs. Make up your own dialogues about other architectural styles changing words in italics

A.: Let’s discuss the Gothic style.

B.: With pleasure. Primary this was the architecture of the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the flying buttress, the stained-glass windows.

A.: What do you mean by the flying buttress?

B.: Do you mean to say that you don’t know? This is an arch or half-arch transmitting the thrust of a vault or a roof from the upper part of an outer support.

A.: Oh, I see. But I think these are not isolated motifs. They act together and represent buildings raised to soaring heights.

B.: You are quite right.

2.10 Make up a report on one of styles of architecture. Try to make it interesting for the audience