- •. В. Арнольд
- •001(01)—86 215-86 4И (Англ)
- •Introduction
- •§1.1 The object of lexicology
- •§ 1.2 The theoretical and practical value of english lexicology
- •§ 1.3 The connection of lexicology with phonetics, stylistics, grammar and other branches of linguistics
- •§ 1.4 Types of lexical units
- •§ 1.5 The notion of lexical system
- •§ 1.6 The theory of oppositions
- •§ 2.1 The definition of the word
- •§ 2.2 Semantic triangle
- •§ 2.3 Phonetic, morphological
- •Chapter 3
- •§ 3.1 Definitions
- •§ 3.2 The lexical meaning versus notion
- •§ 3.3 Denotative and connotative meaning
- •§ 3.5 Contextual analysis
- •3.6 Componential analysis
- •§ 4.1 Types of semantic change
- •5 И. В. Арнольд 65
- •§ 4.2 Linguistic causes of semantic change
- •§ 4.3 Extralinguistic causes of semantic change
- •Chapter 5 morphological structure of english words. Affixation
- •§ 5.1 Morphemes. Free and bound forms. Morphological classification of words. Word-families
- •§ 5.2 Aims and principles of morphemic and word-formation analysis
- •§ 5.3 Analysis into immediate constituents
- •§ 5.4 Derivational and functional affixes
- •§ 5.5 The valency of affixes and stems. Word-building patterns and their meaning
- •§ 5.6 Classification of affixes
- •§ 5.7 Allomorphs
- •§ 5.8 Boundary cases between derivation, inflection and composition
- •§ 5.9 Combining forms
- •§ 5.10 Hybrids
- •§ 6.1 Definitions and introductory remarks
- •§ 6.2.1 The criteria of compounds
- •§ 6.2.2 Semi-affixes
- •§ 6.2.3 “The stone wall problem”
- •§ 6.2.4 Verbal collocations of the ‘give up’ type
- •§ 6.3 Specific features of english compounds
- •§ 6.4.1 Classification of compounds
- •§ 6.4.2 Compound nouns
- •§ 6.4.3 Compound adjectives
- •§ 6.4.4 Compound verbs
- •§ 6.5 Derivational compounds
- •§ 6.6 Reduplication and miscellanea of composition
- •§ 6.6.1 Reduplicative compounds
- •§ 6.6.2 Ablaut combinations
- •§ 6.6.3 Rhyme combinations
- •§ 6.7 Pseudo-compounds
- •§ 6.8 The historical development of english compounds
- •§ 6.9 New word-forming patterns in composition
- •7.2 Blending
- •§ 7.3 Graphical abbreviations. Acronyms
- •§ 7.4 Minor types of lexical oppositions. Sound interchange
- •10 И. В. Арнольд 145
- •§ 7.5 Distinctive stress
- •§ 7.6 Sound imitation
- •§ 7.7 Back-formation
- •§ 8.6 Conversion in different parts of speech
- •§ 8.7 Conversion and other types of word-formation
- •11* 163
- •§ 9.4 Similarity and difference between a set expression and a word
- •§ 9.5 Features enhancing unity and stability of set expressions
- •§ 9.6 Proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations and clichés
- •12* 179
- •Part Two english vocabulary as a system
- •§ 10.1 Homonyms
- •§ 10.2 The origin of homonyms
- •§ 10.3 Homonymy treated synchronically
- •§ 10.6 Sources of synonymy
- •§ 10.7 Euphemisms
- •§ 10.8 Lexical variants and paronyms
- •§ 10.9 Antonyms and conversives
- •In poetry, unless perhaps the end (Byron).
- •§ 11.1 The english vocabulary as an adaptive system. Neologisms
- •§ 11.2 Morphological and lexico-grammatical grouping
- •§ 11.3 Thematic and ideographic groups. The theories of semantic fields. Hyponymy
- •§ 11.4 Terminological systems
- •§ 115 The opposition of emotionally coloured and emotionally neutral vocabulary
- •§ 11.6 Different types of non-semantic grouping
- •§ 12.4 Poetic diction
- •§ 12.5 Colloquial words and expressions
- •§ 12.6 Slang
- •§ 13.4 International words
- •§ 14.1 Standard english variants and dialects
- •To James Smith
- •§ 14.2 American english
- •§ 14.3 Canadian, australian and indian variants
- •Chapter 15 lexicography
- •§ 15.1 Types of dictionaries
- •Types of Dictionaries
- •§ 15.2 Some of the main problems of lexicology
- •§ 15.3 Historical development of british and american lexicography
- •Conclusion
- •Oxford Dictionaries
- •Ирина Владимировна Арнольд
§ 6.6 Reduplication and miscellanea of composition
§ 6.6.1 Reduplicative compounds
In what follows we shall describe some combinations that may be called compounds by right of pattern, as they very markedly consist of two parts, but otherwise in most cases fail to satisfy our definition of a compound word. Some of them contain only one free form, the other constituents being a variation of this, while there are also cases where both constituents are jocular pseudo-morphemes, meaningless and fanciful sound clusters which never occur elsewhere. Their motivation is mostly based upon sound-symbolism and it is their phonetic make-up that plays the most important role in their functioning They are all stylistically coloured (either colloquial, slang or nursery words) and markedly expressive and emotional: the emotion is not expressed in the constituents but suggested by the whole pattern (reduplication rhyme).
The group consists of reduplicative compounds that fall into three main subgroups: reduplicative compounds proper, ablaut combinations and rhyme combinations.
Reduplicative compounds proper are not restricted to the repetition of onomatopoeic stems with intensifying effect, as it is sometimes suggested. Actually it is a very mixed group containing usual free forms, onomatopoeic stems and pseudo-morphemes. Onomatopoeic repetition exists but it is not very extensive: hush-hush ‘secret’, murmur (a borrowing from French) pooh-pooh (to express contempt). In blah-blah ‘nonsense’, ‘idle talk’ the constituents are pseudo-morphemes which do not occur elsewhere. The usage may be illustrated by the following example: Should he give them half a minute of blah-blah or tell them what had been passing through his mind? (Priestley) Nursery words such as quack-quack ‘duck’, Pops-Pops ‘father’ and many other words belong to the same type.
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Non-imitative words may be also used in reduplication and possess then an ironical ring: pretty-pretty ‘affectedly pretty’, goody-goody ‘sentimentally and affectedly good’. The instances are not numerous and occur only in colloquial speech. An interesting example is the expressive and ironical never-never, an ellipsis of the phrase never-never system ‘a hire-purchase system in which the consumer may never be able to become the owner of the thing purchased’. The situation may be clear from the following: “They’ve got a smashing telly, a fridge and another set of bedroom furniture in silver-grey.” “All on the never-never, what’ll happen if he loses his job?” (Lindsay)
§ 6.6.2 Ablaut combinations
The reduplicative compounds resemble in sound form the rhyme combinations like razzle-dazzle and ablaut combinations like sing-song. These two types, therefore, are treated by many1 as repetition with change of initial consonant or with vowel interchange. H. Marchand treats these as pseudo-compounds, which occur as twin forms with phonic variation and as twin forms with a rhyme for characteristic feature.
Ablaut combinations are twin forms consisting of one basic morpheme (usually the second), sometimes a pseudo-morpheme which is repeated in the other constituent with a different vowel. The typical changes are [ı]— [æ]: chit-chat ‘gossip’ (from chat ‘easy familiar talk’), dilly-dally ‘loiter’, knick-knack ‘small articles of ornament’, riff-raff ‘the mob’, shilly-shally ‘hesitate’, zigzag (borrowed from French), and [ı] — [o]: ding-dong (said of the sound of a bell), ping-pong ‘table-tennis’, singsong ‘monotonous voice’, tiptop ‘first-rate’. The free forms corresponding to the basic morphemes are as a rule expressive words denoting sound or movement.
Both groups are based on sound symbolism expressing polarity. With words denoting movement these words symbolise to and fro rhythm: criss-cross; the to and fro movement also suggests hesitation: shilly-shally (probably based on the question “Shall I?"); alternating noises: pitter-patter. The semantically predominant group are the words meaning idle talk: bibble-babble, chit-chat, clitter-clatter, etc.