Organization of the United States Government

Branch	Members	How chosen	Term	Powers
Legisla-tive (Cong-ress)	Senate Two Senators from each state	state election	6 years	Writes new laws Sets federal taxes Approves Presidential appointments Overrules Presidential vetoes Approves treaties Declares war Impeaches a President
	House of Represen-tatives Number of Represen-tatives varies according to state population	state election	2 years
Executi-ve	President	national election	4 years	Enforces federal laws Appoints and removes high federal officials Commands the armed forces Conducts foreign affairs Recommends laws to Congress Approves or vetoes new laws
	Executive Depart-ments	Presidential appointment	no set term	Conducts the administration of the national government
	Indepen-dent Agencies	Presidential appointment	no set term	Oversees government regulations
Judi-cial	Supreme Court Nine justices	Presidential appointment	life	Interprets laws according to the Constitution May declare actions of the Executive and Legislative branches unconstitutional
	Lower Federal Courts	Presidential appointment	life	Decides cases that involve the Constitution and federal laws

State and Local Governments. Each state has its own constitution. Like the national government, state governments are divided into legislative, executive and judicial branches. In each state there are state senators and representatives, state court systems, and, like the President of the country, a governor of the state.

Below the state level of government, there are county and city governments.

Two-party system. The United States has two main political parties - the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. There are other, much smaller, parties, which play little, if any, role. There are no clear differences between the Republican and Democratic parties. In general, the Republicans tend to be more conservative and to have more support among the upper classes, while the Democrats tend to be more liberal and to have more support among the working class and the poor.

2. A period of exploration

Imagine a time many thousands of years ago. A group of hunters came to a huge, unexplored land. They were the first people in America.

For many thousands of years the descendants of those hunters moved farther into the new territory. Finally they settled in all parts of the land. Different groups developed different languages and customs. These people were American Indians, or Red Indians.

Then, one day, a new group of travellers came to the land. They had new customs, new languages and a very different way of life. They were Europeans.

The first inhabitants. No one knows exactly how people first came to North America. However, many scientists believe that America's first settlers were hunters who came from Siberia. These hunters followed big animals over a land bridge into what is now Alaska.

About two million years ago the weather in the northern half of the earth changed greatly. It grew colder. The snow that fell did not melt in summer. Much of the land was covered with huge glaciers. This period of time is called the Ice Age because so much of the North was covered with ice. Sea water froze, and the water level in the sea dropped. There is a narrow strait between the Bering and Chukchi Seas. During the Ice Age this strait probably became very shallow. In some places it dried up completely and formed a land bridge from Asia to North America.

The scientists think that the people of Asia found this land bridge between 15,000 and 40,000 years ago. Group after group moved across the bridge to the unexplored continent of North America. They passed through what is now Alaska and western Canada.

Ways of Indian life. North America is a land of many geographic features. There are mountains and deserts. There are forests, plains, lakes and oceans. American Indians, descendants of the first settlers, lived in or near all these regions.

The Indians' way of life depended on the geography of the area they lived in. The Indians who settled near the ocean fished. On the Great Plains, where there were many animals, the Indians were hunters. In places with rich soil the Indians farmed.

There were hundreds of different American Indian tribes. Each tribe had its own territory. Tribes had different languages and customs, too.

The American Indians can be divided into five groups, according to where they lived.

The Northwest Indians lived near the forests of the Pacific coast. They sailed along the Pacific coast in very long boats (up to 18 metres) called canoes, and fished.

The California Indians settled between the Rocky Mountains and the California coast. They fished in the Pacific Ocean and hunted in the forests. They also gathered acorns and other nuts in the forests.

The Plains Indians hunted in the central part of the continent.

The Southwest Indians lived in what is now Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico. They were farmers and grew corn and beans. In dry areas they developed irrigation. The Eastern Woodlands Indians lived in the eastern part of the continent. They fished in the Atlantic Ocean and in the rivers, hunted in the forests. Many of them built villages and became farmers.

Europe’s first explorers. From the very first, Europeans who explored North America were looking for riches. It took a lot of courage to be an explorer a thousand years ago. Every trip was a journey into the unknown. Slowly, however, explorers began to learn more about the world. With each voyage they could draw maps more accurately. The early explorers made travelling easier for those who came later.

Viking voyages. In the late 900's the Vikings, who lived in Scandinavia¹, were the best sailors and shipbuilders in Europe. Each year they left their homes and sailed to foreign lands in search of food and riches. They discovered Iceland and Greenland.

In 1001 a Viking called Leif Ericsson sailed west of Greenland and came to the shore of Newfoundland. Most of what we know about Ericsson's voyage comes from stories that the Vikings told. These stories, called sagas, were histories of Viking leaders and their adventures. The sagas of Ericsson's trip describe a land in which Ericsson found grapes, wheat and trees. He called this place Vinland. The sagas also describe a house that Ericsson built there. But Ericsson's settlement did not last long. Because of problems with the American Indians the Vikings sailed away from Vinland.

Riches from the East. While the Vikings were sailing west, other Europeans were travelling east. Some went to the areas around the Mediterranean Sea.

Others went as far east as India and China. They found these lands rich in gold, gems and silk. They tasted new spices that could be used to better the taste of food.

One traveller to the East was an Italian named Marco Polo. He went to China in 1275 and stayed for seventeen years. When he returned to Italy, he wrote a book about his journey. In his book Marco Polo described the places he had visited and the customs of the people he had met. Many people first learned about China from Marco Polo's book.

At that time routes from Europe to the East crossed both land and water. Land travel was slow and often dangerous. Sometimes bandits attacked the traders. Sometimes the traders were not allowed to pass through certain lands. The traders wanted a fast and safe route to the East. European traders thought that an all-water route would be better.

In 1498 one Portuguese captain, Vasco da Gama, sailed around the southern tip of Africa. The Portuguese called the tip the Cape of Good Hope. Da Gama sailed to India and then back to Portugal. At last an all-water route to the East had been found.

Spain and the New World. In the late 1400's Spain began searching for another water route to the East. Instead of it, Spanish explorers found a new continent. A mapmaker called it the New World - the land across the Atlantic that was not part of Asia.

The great explorer. Christopher Columbus was born in Italy and grew up near the sea. As a boy, he loved to go to the port and listen to the sailors' stories.

In 1476, when he was 24 years old, Columbus sailed on a ship bound for England. His ship sank near the coast of Portugal, but he managed to get to the shore.

Columbus remained in Portugal and learned Latin, geography and shipbuilding there. He became a mapmaker and then a sea captain. Like many other Europeans, Columbus began to think that the earth was round. He decided to try to find a quick route to the East by sailing west.

The King of Portugal thought that the plan was too dangerous and refused to pay for the voyage. So, in 1485, Columbus went to Spain for help. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain liked Columbus's plan and agreed to give him money for sailors, ships and supplies.

On August 3, 1492, three ships left Spain and sailed to the west. The three small ships sailed for weeks with no sight of land. The sailors became nervous. They asked Columbus to turn back. "Sail on," was the reply.

As time passed, the sailors grew angry. They threatened to rebel, but finally agreed to sail on for three more days. Columbus promised that if they did not see land, they would turn back. On the morning of the third day they saw birds flying in the sky. Then a sailor saw land. On October 12, 1492, Columbus stepped ashore, holding the Spanish flag. Columbus thought that he had reached a group of islands near the coasts of China and India which were called the Indies. That's why he called the people he saw Indians. Columbus made three more voyages to the New World. But he never knew that he had discovered a new world. He was sure that he had approached China and India from the east.

Cortés in Mexico. In the early 1500's a number of Spanish soldiers and adventurers went to Hispaniola³ and Cuba⁴, islands in the West Indies. From these islands they were planning to explore other parts of the New World. These adventurers called themselves conquistadors, which meant conquerors. One of the conquistadors was Hernando Cortés.

Many of the conquistadors came to the New World after hearing rumours that there was much gold to be found there. In 1519 Cortes led an expedition to find out if the rumours were true. He went to a land west of Cuba, called Mexico.

In Mexico Cortes met an Indian woman who told him about the rich and powerful Aztec Indians. These Indians lived in Central Mexico, in a huge city, she told Corte's. They had much gold and silver.

Cortes led an army to conquer the Aztecs. The march was long and difficult. Along the way, other Indians who wanted to fight the Aztecs joined Cortes. Finally, Corte's and his army came to a land with beautiful blue lakes. On an island in one of the lakes was Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital city.

The Spaniards were amazed by the Aztec city and its people. The city had fine architecture and sculpture. Aztec doctors could cure many diseases. The Aztecs also had well-trained soldiers and an efficient government.

Montezuma, the Aztec leader, treated Cortes as an honoured guest. He gave Cortes gold and silver.

He offered Cortes a palace to stay in. Montezuna treated Cortes so well because he thought that Cortes was the great Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. Aztec legends described Quetzalcoatl as white-skinned and bearded, just like Cortes.

Soon Montezuma understood that he had been wrong. Corte's was not a god. The Aztec leader gave the Spaniards gifts to make them leave. The Spaniards, however, did not want to .leave. They captured Tenochtitlan and took Montezuma prisoner.

The Aztecs tried to get their leader back. Meanwhile, fighting between conquistadors and Aztecs began in other parts of Mexico. The fighting went on for months. Montezuma was killed in Tenochtitlan.

In the end, the Spaniards defeated the Aztecs. They declared themselves masters of Mexico and sent shiploads of gold and silver to Spain. King Carlos I of Spain was pleased. It seemed that the rumours about the New World's riches were true.

Around the world. Ferdinand Magellan² was the first European who got to the Spice Islands (Indonesia), sailing to the west. He found a passage around South America to the Pacific Ocean. Four ships were lost on the dangerous journey. Magellan himself was killed by natives in the Philippine Islands.

In 1522 a single ship returned to Spain. Of the 265 men who had left in 1519, only 18 returned. They had been gone three years. But they had sailed around the world. They proved that Columbus had been right. Ships could, indeed, reach the East by sailing west.

Other European explorers. There were other European explorers who tried to find a water route through or around America. After Magellan's voyage Spain controlled the southern parts of America. So the new explorers decided to look for a water route in the North.

English exploration. John Cabot was an Italian sea captain who explored for England. The English also hoped that Cabot could reach the Spice Islands by sailing west.

In 1447 Cabot set sail with one small ship and eighteen men. After five weeks at sea he reached land and claimed it for England. Cabot thought he was in China.

In fact, Cabot had landed in what is now Newfoundland. Instead of spices, he found one of the richest fishing areas in the world.

The next year Cabot made another trip. He explored much of the north-eastern coast of North America. It was Cabot's last trip. He and his crew were lost at sea.

French exploration. The French¹ explorer, Jacques Cartier, made three voyages to the New World between 1534 and 1542. Cartier was looking for the Northwest Passage - a water route through North America to Asia. He found the St. Lawrence River and explored it as far as present-day Montreal, Canada.

French explorers kept trying to find the Northwest Passage. In 1603, Samuel de Champlain explored much of what is now eastern Canada and Northern New York State. He claimed this land for Prance. He set up a settlement at Quebec and sailed II kiss Lake Huron and Lake Ontario. But he did not find the Northwest Passage.

Some French explorers thought that the Mississippi River might be a passage west to the Pacific Ocean. In 1673 Louis Joliet³ and Jacques Marquekte travelled down the Mississippi by raft and canoe. Robert La Salle, another French explorer, travelled to the mouth of the Mississippi in 1682. He called the surrounding area Louisiana and claimed he entire Mississippi Valley for France.

Dutch exploration. Henry Hudson was an English navigator who made important explorations for the Dutch and English. In 1609 he set sail from The Netherlands. Reaching North America, he explored the Atlantic shore and sailed up the river that was later named for him - the Hudson. He claimed the territory around the Hudson River for The Netherlands. It became New Netherlands - the first Dutch colony in the New World.

The next year a group of English merchants hired Hudson to explore northern Canada. He found what is now known as Hudson Bay and claimed all the surrounding land for England.