- •И. В. Арнольд
- •001(01)—86 215-86 4И (Англ)
- •Introduction
- •§1.1 The object of lexicology
- •§ 1.2 The theoretical and practical value of english lexicology
- •§ 1.3 The connection of lexicology with phonetics, stylistics, grammar and other branches of linguistics
- •§ 1.4 Types of lexical units
- •§ 1.5 The notion of lexical system
- •§ 1.6 The theory of oppositions
- •§ 2.1 The definition of the word
- •§ 2.2 Semantic triangle
- •§ 2.3 Phonetic, morphological
- •Chapter 3
- •§ 3.1 Definitions
- •§ 3.2 The lexical meaning versus notion
- •§ 3.3 Denotative and connotative meaning
- •§ 3.4 The semantic structure of polysemantic words
- •§ 3.5 Contextual analysis
- •3.6 Componential analysis
- •§ 4.1 Types of semantic change
- •§ 4.2 Linguistic causes of semantic change
- •§ 4.3 Extralinguistic causes of semantic change
- •Chapter 5 morphological structure of english words. Affixation
- •§ 5.1 Morphemes. Free and bound forms. Morphological classification of words. Word-families
- •§ 5.2 Aims and principles of morphemic and word-formation analysis
- •§ 5.3 Analysis into immediate constituents
- •§ 5.4 Derivational and functional affixes
- •§ 5.5 The valency of affixes and stems. Word-building patterns and their meaning
- •§ 5.6 Classification of affixes
- •§ 5.7 Allomorphs
- •§ 5.8 Boundary cases between derivation, inflection and composition
- •§ 5.9 Combining forms
- •§ 5.10 Hybrids
- •§ 6.1 Definitions and introductory remarks
- •§ 6.2.1 The criteria of compounds
- •§ 6.2.2 Semi-affixes
- •§ 6.2.3 “The stone wall problem”
- •§ 6.2.4 Verbal collocations of the ‘give up’ type
- •§ 6.3 Specific features of english compounds
- •§ 6.4.1 Classification of compounds
- •§ 6.4.2 Compound nouns
- •§ 6.4.3 Compound adjectives
- •§ 6.4.4 Compound verbs
- •§ 6.5 Derivational compounds
- •§ 6.6 Reduplication and miscellanea of composition
- •§ 6.6.1 Reduplicative compounds
- •§ 6.6.2 Ablaut combinations
- •§ 6.6.3 Rhyme combinations
- •§ 6.7 Pseudo-compounds
- •§ 6.8 The historical development of english compounds
- •§ 6.9 New word-forming patterns in composition
- •§ 7.1 Shortening of spoken words and its causes
- •7.2 Blending
- •§ 7.3 Graphical abbreviations. Acronyms
- •§ 7.4 Minor types of lexical oppositions. Sound interchange
- •§ 7.5 Distinctive stress
- •§ 7.6 Sound imitation
- •§ 7.7 Back-formation
- •§ 8.1 Introductory remarks
- •§ 8.2 The historical development of conversion
- •Oe ModE
- •OFr ModE
- •§ 8.3 Conversion in present-day english
- •§ 8.4 Semantic relationships in conversion
- •§ 8.5 Substantivation
- •§ 8.6 Conversion in different parts of speech
- •§ 8.7 Conversion and other types of word-formation
- •§ 9.1 Introductory remarks. Definitions
- •§ 9.2 Set expressions, semi-fixed combinations and free phrases
- •§ 9.3 Classification of set expressions
- •§ 9.4 Similarity and difference between a set expression and a word
- •§ 9.5 Features enhancing unity and stability of set expressions
- •§ 9.6 Proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations and clichés
- •Part Two english vocabulary as a system
- •§ 10.1 Homonyms
- •§ 10.2 The origin of homonyms
- •Origin of Homonyms
- •§ 10.3 Homonymy treated synchronically
- •§ 10.4 Synonyms
- •§ 10.6 Sources of synonymy
- •§ 10.7 Euphemisms
- •§ 10.8 Lexical variants and paronyms
- •§ 10.9 Antonyms and conversives
- •In poetry, unless perhaps the end (Byron).
- •§ 11.1 The english vocabulary as an adaptive system. Neologisms
- •§ 11.2 Morphological and lexico-grammatical grouping
- •§ 11.3 Thematic and ideographic groups. The theories of semantic fields. Hyponymy
- •§ 11.4 Terminological systems
- •§ 115 The opposition of emotionally coloured and emotionally neutral vocabulary
- •§ 11.6 Different types of non-semantic grouping
- •§ 12.4 Poetic diction
- •§ 12.5 Colloquial words and expressions
- •§ 12.6 Slang
- •§ 13.4 International words
- •§ 14.1 Standard english variants and dialects
- •To James Smith
- •§ 14.2 American english
- •§ 14.3 Canadian, australian and indian variants
- •Chapter 15 lexicography
- •§ 15.1 Types of dictionaries
- •Types of Dictionaries
- •§ 15.2 Some of the main problems of lexicology
- •§ 15.3 Historical development of british and american lexicography
- •Conclusion
- •Oxford Dictionaries
- •Ирина Владимировна Арнольд
§ 6.4.1 Classification of compounds
The great variety of compound types brings about a great variety of classifications. Compound words may be classified according to the type of composition and the linking element; according to the part of
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1 Bloomfield L. A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language. // Psycho-linguistics. A Book of Reading/Ed. by Sol Saporta. N.Y., 1961. Pt. IV. P. 28.
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speech to which the compound belongs; and within each part of speech according to the structural pattern (see the next paragraph). It is also possible to subdivide compounds according to other characteristics, i.e. semantically, into motivated and idiomatic compounds (in the motivated ones the meaning of the constituents can be either direct or figurative). Structurally, compounds are distinguished as endocentric and exocentric, with the subgroup of bahuvrihi (see p. 125ff) and syntactic and asyntactic combinations. A classification according to the type of the syntactic phrase with which the compound is correlated has also been suggested. Even so there remain some miscellaneous types that defy classification, such as phrase compounds, reduplicative compounds, pseudo-compounds and quotation compounds.
The classification according to the type of composition permits us to establish the following groups:
The predominant type is a mere juxtaposition without connecting elements: heartache n, heart-beat n, heart-break n, heart-breaking a, heart-broken a, heart-felt a.
Composition with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element. The examples are very few: electromotive a, speedometer n, Afro-Asian a, handicraft n, statesman n.
Compounds with linking elements represented by preposition or conjunction stems: down-and-out n, matter-of-fact a, son-in-law n, pepper-and-salt a, wall-to-wall a, up-to-date a, on the up-and-up adv (continually improving), up-and-coming, as in the following example: No doubt he’d had the pick of some up-and-coming jazzmen in Paris (Wain). There are also a few other lexicalised phrases like devil-may-care a, forget-me-not n, pick-me-up n, stick-in-the-mud n, what’s-her name n.
The classification of compounds according to the structure of immediate constituents distinguishes:
1) compounds consisting of simple stems: film-star;
compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem: chain-smoker;
compounds where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem: maths-mistress (in British English) and math-mistress (in American English). The subgroup will contain abbreviations like H-bag (handbag) or Xmas (Christmas), whodunit n (for mystery novels) considered substandard;
compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem: wastepaper-basket.
In what follows the main structural types of English compounds are described in greater detail. The list is by no means exhaustive but it may serve as a general guide.