Coordination instead of subordination changes the tone of the utterance.

E.g. When he came the second time, he saw Denny in the same state, nearly senseless. – He came the second time and saw Denny…

Grammatical metaphors, stylistic transpositions.

1. Quasi-negative sentences

1. The use of affirmative sentences containing no negative forms to create negative meaning. E.g. 1) Dash me if I do it! 2) Is it a woman? – Be hanged if it’s anything remotely resembling a woman.

2. The use of rhetorical questions with the affirmative predicate to imply negative meaning. E.g. Did I say a word about money?

3. The use of isolated subordinate clauses of unreal comparison to create negation without the usual negative forms. E.g. As if I ever stop thinking about her! Как будто я нарочно!

4. Exclamatory questions and reiterative responses may imply negation or denial and disapproval of the previous statement. E.g. I’ve explained why I did that. –Explained?!

2. Quasi-imperative sentences. The function of imperative sentences may be fulfilled by the use of a noun or noun-phrases. Context is important here. E.g. Tea. For two. Out here.

3. Quasi-interrogative s-ces. Interrogative meaning may be rendered by a positive statement with direct word order. It implies the speaker’s assurance of getting a positive answer or his wish to make the interlocutor talk. E.g. There is nothing the matter?

Represented speech / Non-personal Direct speech

RS is a stylistic device peculiarly combining the features of direct and indirect speech. It creates the effect of the character’s immediate presence and participation.

The morphological structure of RS is that of the indirect speech. The character is referred to in the 3^rd person, the verbs and pronouns are of the same form, and the Past Indefinite is used. But there are features, which distinguish RS from the author’s narration; these features are the features of the direct speech:

• Interrogative and exclamatory sentences;

• Elliptical, one-member sentences; broken, abrupt sentences;

• The absence of logical connection between sentences;

• Parcellated constructions;

• Parallelism and all kinds of repetitions

• Words and phrases typical of the character’s individual speech

• Graphones which reflect phonetic peculiarities of the character’s speech

This device recreates the fragmentary character of the personage’s flow of thought; it gives an insight into his personality. But the writer does not eliminate himself from the narration; he seems to co-exist with the character.

There are 2 types of RS:

1. Represented innerspeech is more widely used. It is a reproduction of the character’s thoughts or inner speech. It allows to give a fuller and more complete picture of the character’s state of mind as if from within. E.g.He held the cigarette in his mouth, tasting it, feeling its roundness, for a long time before he lit it. Then with a sigh, feeling, well, I’ve earned it, he lit the cigarette.

2. Represented uttered speech is a reproduction of the character’s uttered remark or even a whole dialogue. It appeared earlier than (1). E.g. Angela, who was taking in every detail of Eugene’s old friend, replied in what seemed an affected tone that no, she wasn’t used to studio life: she was just from the country, you know – a regular farmer girl – Blackwood, Wisconsin, no less!..

RS as a stylistic device is comparatively young; it appeared in the 19^th century. In the 20^th century it developed in the “stream-of-consciousness technique”. E.g. James Joyce “Ulysses”.

The main division of expressive means. Lexical means of expressiveness.

1. "Ancient"/ traditional classification. The whole stock of stylistically relevant language means is traditionally subdivided into 2 classes: tropes and figures of speech.

TROPES comes from Greek τροπος which means a turn, a change of meaning from literal to figurative, a transference of meaning.

FIGURES OF SPEECH:

comprise two groups - figures of construction and figures of diction. Figures of construction are deviations from the regular syntactical pattern, the use of construction aimed at intensifying the meaning. Figures of diction deal with sound effects.

2. Functional classification. According to it all stylistically relevant language means are divided into figurative and expressive language means (изобразительные и выразительные).

FIGURATIVE language means embrace all kinds of the transference of meaning. They include not only words as in tropes, but word combinations and even phonemes - everything that evokes images. (E.g. rhythm - E.Poe "Eldorado") EXPRESSIVE language means are those which intensify the power of an utterance through special arrangement of the language material, especially through syntactical structures, but also all types of intensifiers, alliteration etc.

3. Level-oriented classification. It is simply organized and very detailed. Galperin subdivides expressive means and stylistic devices into:

a) phonetic b) lexical c) syntactical.

The terms expressive means and stylistic devices are not completely synonymous. Not all expressive means are stylistic devices, E.g. pauses, logical stress, diminutive suffixes, intensifiers, emphatic constructions "If only...!" etc. A stylistic device is a generalized literary model employed for an expressive purpose.