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The structural-semantic aspect of the sentence

The structural aspect of the sentence deals with the structural organization of the sentence, it reveals the mechanisms of deriving sentences and structural types of sentences.

According to their structure sentences are classified into simple (monopredicative structures) and composite (polypredicative structures) which are further subdivided into complex (based on subordination) and compound (based on coordination). Clauses within the structure of a composite sentence may be connected with the help of formal markers (conjunctions and connectives: relative pronouns and relative adverbs -syndetically) and without any formal markers – asyndetically. Thus we should differentiate between two structural varieties of composite sentences: syndetic and asyndetic types. Besides these pure types there are also peripheral types: semicomplex and semicompound sentences which contain structures of secondary predication.The minimum structure of the sentence which includes the predicate and the obligatory parts of the sentence forms the structural minimum, or the structural scheme of the sentence. The sentence based on this structural scheme is called the elementary sentence. N - V intrans. - The plane disappeared.; N - V trans. - Obj. direct - / like bananas.; N - V trans. - Obj. indirect - Obj. direct - I bought myself a present.; N - V intrans. - Adv. Mod. of place - He lives in France.;N - V trans. - Obj. direct- Adv. mod. of manner — He treated the boy cruelly.

Extension. It consists in adding to a part of the sentence a unit of the same syntactic status. As a result of extension we have sentences with homogenous parts.

Expansion. It consists in modifying one part of the sentence by another, subordinated to it. Expansion results in the formation of subject, predicate, object and adverbial modifier groups. Compounding consists in changing a part of the sentence (namely the predicate) from simple to compound. The predicate may be compounded by the introduction of either modal or aspective component or both of them at a time. Contamination results in the formation of the so-called double predicate in which the verb becomes syncretic and fulfils a double function: that of a notional verb and that of a link verb. Another case of syncretism is observed in the cases when the verb combines the functions of an auxiliary and a link. Detachment consists in accentuating a part of a sentence and is achieved by a pause in oral speech and by commas or dashes in writing. parcelation as the result of which the detached part of the sentence is separated from the rest of the sentence by a full stop and forms a separate syntactic structure. Compressing. The processes of compressing the elementary sentence are:

1) Substitution consists in replacing a part of a sentence or a whole sentence by a word-substitute. The most frequent substitutes are: it, this, one, so, 2) Representation is a use of a part of a syntactic unit or a or a part of a grammatical form to represent the whole form. 3) Ellipsis is a process of deleting from a sentence one or more parts which are redundant from the informative point of view. The deleted parts can easily be restored either from the previous context or from analogous structures which exist in the language and, consequently, in the lingual memory of the speakers.

Valency is understood as the ability of the verb to combine with other parts of the sentence for the verb to realize its lexical meaning and thus become the semantic and structural centre of the sentence.

Syntactical expressive means.

SEM are deviations from regular, normative, usual syntactical structures aimed at producing some stylistic effect.

  1. SEM based on the absence of logically necessary elements:

  1. ellipsis

  2. one-member sentence

c) aposiopesis

d) asyndeton

e) apokoinou

  1. SEM based on the presence of extra elements:

  1. repetition:

  • anaphora (initial)

  • epiphora (final)

  • anadiplosis (catch-repetition, chain repetition)

  • framing (ring)

  • morphological repetiton

  • distant repetition

  1. polysyndeton (of conjunctions and prepositions)

  2. syntactic tautology

  3. parenthesis

  1. SEM based on the unusual arrangements of the units of the utterance – inversion.

  2. SEM Based on the interplay of adjoining sentences:

  1. parallelism

  2. chiasmus

  1. SEM based on peculiarities of connections and connectives:

  1. detachment

  2. parcellation

  3. coordination instead of subordination

  4. gap-sentence link

  1. SEM based on some change of the semantic functions of sentences:

  1. represented speech

  2. rhetorical questions and other transpositions

(quasi-negative, -interrogative, -imperative)

2. Any repetition of a language unit will inevitably cause some slight modification of meaning. The meaning of the repeated word is not equal to the meaning of 1 separate word. The repeated word acquires connotations, new shades of meaning, undergoes a certain enlarging of meaning.

Functions of repetition: Emphasis (intensification) of the most important part of the utterance. Emotive colouring; to show durability, monotony, frequentative character of the action.;To understand the logical connection between the parts of the utterance (catch repetition); To give a specific rhythm and tone to the narration; Tautological rhyme (epiphora, oriental poetry)

Distant repetition occurs in a longer space of a text: not in a sentence, but on a page/paragraph, or it may reappear all through the book. It acquires a symbolic force affecting the nature of the work and our response to it.

E.g. the word rain in “Farewell to arms” by Hemingway

Repetition should not be mixed with pleonasm – uneconomic usage of unnecessary words.

Syntactic tautology is the repetition of a part of the sentence expressed by a noun in the form of a pronoun for the sake of emphasis. E.g. nursery rhymes, folk poetry: three little kittens they washed their mittens, the Queen of the hearts she made some tarts.

Parenthesisis an explanatory / qualifying sentence, phrase, word which is inserted in a longer passage without being grammatically connected with it. It is marked by commas, brackets or dashes.

Functions: To create the atmosphere of intimacy between the writer and the reader, to involve the reader into the action. To change the tone of the narration, to make the speech emotionally coloured, to show the author’s attitude to the things described. To give the utterance a colloquial tinge. To create a humorous effect.

4. Parallel constructions are identical syntactical patterns closely following one another.

E.g. What we anticipate seldom occurs, what we don’t expect generally happens.

When I do right, no one remembers, when I do wrong, no one forgets.

Complete parallelism occurs when the construction of the second phrase fully copies that of the first; partial – when only parts of succeeding sentences are structurally similar.

Functions of parallelism:

  1. Helps to stress the common meaning in two parallel constructions and to understand this common meaning through analogy.

  2. Enhances the effect of the stylistic device used together with parallel construction.

  3. Strongly affects the rhythmical organization of the paragraph and is often used in oratory, pathetic and emphatic extracts.

Chiasmus or reversed parallelism implies the change of syntactic relations. The central part of the sentence, the predicate, remains the hinge around which syntactical changes occur: the subject of the first clause becomes the object of the second or vice versa. Similar to parallelism chiasmus often cooperates with repetition.

E.g. I know the world and the world knows me.

Functions of chiasmus:

  1. Helps to render additional emphasis.

  2. Special rhythm is achieved due to it.

  3. Some semantic changes appear due to these constructions.

5. Detachment is a syntactical stylistic device consisting in separating a secondary part of a sentence from the word to which it refers both logically and grammatically.

Functions:

  1. Helps to break the monotony of the narration.

  2. Gives a greater prominence to the isolated part.

  3. Helps to convey the emotional attitude to what is described.

Parcellation – the breaking off of the syntactic relations between a word or a phrase and the sentence. Graphically it is expressed by a full stop.

Functions:

  1. Emphasis of the parcellated part.

  2. Gives an imitation of natural, colloquial speech.

  3. Makes the narration compact, dynamic.

  4. When the parcellated phrase has weak semantic connections with the sentence, the effect can be comical, ironic.

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