Interaction between parts of speech.
Part of speech is characterized by a field or prototypical structure.The term field structure is not new,it appeared within a functional analysis of the lang& was introduced by the scholars of Prague school.The term prototypical was borrowed from cognitive phycology(E.Porsch)&became very popular almost ousting the term field.However these 2 terms are closely related .Both imply that p of s have a center & a perifery.The center is represented by units which posses all the features of a given p of s & thus they r characterized by a semmetry of semantic morphological& syntactic properties .The perifery is occupied by words which are characterized by an assymetry of these features.Ex:MAN-[sem]an animate object,[morph]number,case,[synt]it is the most friquently used as subject,object,predicative.
SIMPLICITY[+-]semantics-quality,morphology---,syntactics[-+]she is simplicity itself.Such periferal zones exist within each notional p of s 7 with the help of these periferies p of s interract with one another.
N –V
ADV-ADJECT
The most common way of functional interraction between p of s is the syntactic or functional transposition. It is a syntagmatic process which consists of the use of a word of one part of sp in the syntactic position characteristic of another p of s.In the process of syntactic transposition words realize their secondary syntactic function& thus extend the syntactic territory of p of s.Ex:she sings it verydixiland and whorehouse—N used adverbialy.A nothing day-pronoun used as an adjective.Syntactic transposition carries out 2 important functions of a lang.IT makes up for certain constrains in the sphere of word-building.Nouns are also used attributivelyTo make up for absence of an adjective(a shadow place,big city police problem)
This function of transposition is called compensatory.However syntactical transp often occurs in cases when there’s a word in this or that p of s to render the necessary meaning,yet the speakers of the lang resort to transposition to find an unconventional or expressive means of rendering the meaning(sad eyes=spanial eyes,drooping ears=tulip ears)This function of transposition is called expressive.So syntactical trans reveals the dinamic & creative potential of a language.Its ability to satisfy the communicative & expressive means of speakers.
12. The noun is the main nominative part of speech, having the categorial meaning of “substance” and “thingness”, but there is a class of N which expresses qualities, a cl of N – names actions or a manner of the action. So, the semantics of N is rather heterogeneous. It is the most numerous cl of W – 42% of Eng W0stock belong to the cl of N. As any part of speech can be substantivised. (new N are produced every day by means of suffixation, conversion& compounding)
N are subdivided into:
Countable – Un~
Proper/ common
Concrete/ abstract
Animate –in~
It has the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, article determination.
The most characteristic function of the noun is that of the subject in the sentence. The function of the object in the sentence is also typical of the noun. Other syntactic functions, i.e. attribute, adverbial and even predicative are not immediately characteristic of its substantive quality.
The noun is characterized by some special types of combinability. It is the prepositional combinability with another noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb. E.g. an entrance to the house; to turn round the corner; red in the face; far from its destination.
The casal combinability characterizes the noun alongside of its prepositional combinability with another noun. E.g. the speech of the President - the president's speech.
English nouns can also easily combine with one another by sheer contact. In the contact group the noun in pre-position plays the role of a semantic qualifier to the noun in post-position. E.g. film festivals, a cannon ball.
Category of Gender (expression of gender)
In modern English gender as a grammatical category is characteristic of the 3-d person singular of the personal and reflexive pronouns: he - she - it; himself - herself - itself.
The division of nouns into masculine, feminine and neuter nouns (father, mother, table) is not grammatical but semantic.
The only gender - forming suffix of the feminine gender '-ess' is limited in use (actress, tigress, lioness). The masculine forming suffix '-er' is added only to one noun - widow - widower.
English nouns denoting animals are usually referred to neuter gender as nouns denoting inanimate things (Where is the cat? - It is in the garden).
When the idea of sex is stressed, such nouns may be of masculine or feminine gender, and sex if often shown by special words, i.e. lexically: Tom - cat, she - cat, lady - cat, male - elephant, he - dog, etc.
In poetry and high prose Engish nouns get gender reference when personified (love, sun, hatred, anger (masculine), moon (feminine)).
This is a traditional personification which originates from Latin literature. In English fables, fairy tales, nouns are personified and get gender at the writer's will: Next day the Rabbit went to see his friend the Sable; she had many daughters.
Feminine gender is given to a noun denoting an animal, bird or insect when maternal instinct is referred to: e.g. A bird betrays her nest when trying to conceal it.
When abstract nouns are personified, masculine gender is given to nouns denoting strength, strong feelings (anger, death, fear, war), feminine gender - to nouns associated with the idea of gentleness, beauty, peace (spring, kindness, dawn, etc).
In English soldiers' and sailors' slang nouns denoting vessels and vehicles are referred to feminine gender affectionally: She is a good boat. The new ship has started on her maiden voyage.
13. Grammatical category of number – GC which presents a specific linguistic reflection of the quantative relations between homogeneous objects of reality conceptualized by human mind.
The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form of the noun. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal marker is presented by several phonetically and historically conditioned allomorphs such as [z] in dog — dogs, [s] clock — clocks,[iz] box — boxes, [0/] bison, sheep, [en]oxen, [ae] antennae, [ai] radii, alumnus— alumni.There are quite a few doublets among the PL forms which differ either lexically (penny – pennies(coins), pence (a sum of money) : genius – geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits) or stylistically, as in brother – s/ brethren or cow – cows, kine.
Semantically the forms of the PL are not homogeneous. The pragmatic meaning of PL is presented by a number of syntagmatic variants:
Discrete plurality (books, houses)
Indiscrete PL (hours, miles)
Partitive PL (spectacles, trousers)
Variety Pl (wines, fruits, teas, cheeses)
Space PL (snows, sands, watwrs)
Family or clan PL (the Smiths)
These meanings are the result of the interaction b-ween the general paradigmatic meaning and the semantics of the noun. Some pl forms may acquire a new lexical meaning and become Lexicalized (colours, customs, arms, quarters, minutes)
The Sg form of the N which is the weak member of the opposition has a wide and extensive meaning which is best defined as “non-plurality” and includes such meanings as:
Singularity (A minute of ur attention, please)
Uncountability (be different as chalk and cheese)
Generalization (A child can understand this)
From the (‘) jf view of their number characteristics the Eng N fall into 2 classes” countable & un~. This feature determines the choice of the article,the quantitative pronoun & form of the predicate. Uncountable nouns are further subdivided in 2 groups Sg Tantum & PL Tantum.
Singularia tantum includes:
names of abstract notions {peace, love, joy, courage, friendship, etc.)
names of mass-materials {water, snow, steel, hair, bread, butter, sugar, etc.)
names of some collective inanimate objects (foliage, machienery)
Names of sciences and professional activity {chemistry, architecture, mathematics)
Nouns of heterogeneous semantics (hair, advice, knowledge, money. Information, news)
In the sphere of the plural, likewise, we must recognise the common plural form as the regular feature of countability, and the absolute plural form peculiar to the uncountable subclass of pluralia tantum nouns. The absolute plural, as different from the common plural, cannot directly combine with numerals, and only occasionally does it combine with discrete quantifiers (many, few, etc.).
Pluralia tantum includes:
nouns which denote objects consisting of two halves (trousers, scissors, tongs, spectacles, etc.),
N denoting results of repeated actions (savings, belongings)
N of multitude (police, cattle, poultry)
N of various semantics (clothes, oats, outskirts)
14. Grammatical category of case – GC which marks the semantic role of the noun in the sentence & finds a grammatical expression in the language.
Case is the immanent morphological category of the noun, showing the relations of the object to other objects and phenomena. In modern Eng is limited to the system of 2 cases: common & possessive which replects the relations bween Ws on the level of the phrase
In highly inflectional, synthetic lges the relations bween verb and other parts of the [] are expressed morphologically. Case relations may also be expressed syntactically: by the position of the N in the [] in its reference to the position of the V
The morphological expression of case in modern Eng is limited to the system of 2 cases. The Cat of case of the Eng N is constituted by the binary privative opposition of the common & possessive cases. The formal marker of the PC is the morpheme -'s [z, s, iz] The origin of it is rather obscure (a remnant of the OE Genitive case or the result of the contraction of the phrase the King his head – The King’s head). This morpheme can be joined to the phrases (someone else’s problems), and even []s (I forgot the woman I danced yesterday’s name)
The apostrophy serves to distinguish in writing the singular noun in the possessive case from the plural noun in the common case. The possessive of the most of plural nouns remains phonetically unexpressed: the few exceptions concern only some of the irregular plurals: e.g. the actresses' dresses, the children's room.
. The Gram Meaning of the PC is the idea of possessivity (pure possessivity my sister’s money)
The secondary Gr Meanings are:
1. agent or subject of the action my brother’s arrival
2. object of the action the criminal’s arrest
3. authorship Shakespeare’s sonnet
4. destination a sailor’s uniform
5. measure a day’s wait
6. location at the dean’s
7. description or comparison a lion’s courage
Four special views should be considered in the analysis of this problem.
1) The Theory of Positional Cases
Linguistic formulations of the theory may be found in the works of Deutschbein and other scholars. In accord with the theory of positional cases the unchangable forms of the noun may express different cases due to the functional positions occupied by the noun in the sentence. Thus, the English noun, on the analogy of classical Latin grammar, would distinguish, besides the inflexional posessive case, also the non-inflexional, i.e. purely positional cases: nominative, vocative, dative and accusative.
E.g. the nominative case: The letter is here. (subject to a verb)
the vocative case: (address) Are you ready, students?
the dative case: (indirect object to a verb) She gave the students some books.
the accusative case: (direct object and also object to a preposition) The books were given by the teacher.
The case form is the morphological form of the noun, but the positional case theory substitutes the functional characteristics of the part of the sentence for the morphological features of the part of speech.
2) The Theory of Prepositional Cases
It is also connected with the old school grammar teaching. According to it, combinations of nouns with prepositions on some object and attributive word-groups should be understood as morphological case forms. Here belong the dative case (to + noun, for + noun) and the posessive case (of + noun).
Curme calls these prepositions “nflexional prepositions”, i.e. morphemes. It should follow from this that only the of-, to-, and for- phrases, but also all the other prepositional phrases in English must be regarded as “analytical cases”. As a result, the total number of such cases would become indefinitely large (Ilyish).
3) The Limited Case Theory
It is most broadly accepted among linguists at present. It was formulated by Sweet, Jespersen and was developed by Smirnitsky, Barkhudarov. It is based on the opposition of the possessive or posessive form as the strong member and the common, or “non-posessive” from as the weak member.
It is shown in full with animate nouns, and is restricted with inanimate nouns.
4) Postpositional Theory (No-Case Theory)
Thus view insists that the English noun has completely lost the category of case in the course of its historical development. The view is advanced by G.N. Vorontsova.
First, the postpositional element -'s is loosely connected with the noun, as it is used not only with single nouns, but also with whole word-groups. E.g. Somebody else's daughter. The blonde I had been dancing with's name was Bernice (Salinger). The girl in my class's mother.
Second, the 's can be attached to few nouns denoting living beings, in other cases the parallel prepositional construction is used.
Opposing this theory linguists consider the previous examples stylistically marked, the more self-dependent the construction with the case-sign 's, the stronger the stylistic colouring. Besides, according to statistical observation, the 's sign is attached to individual nouns in 96 percent of its textual occurrences.
Though the main meaning of the posessive case is possession, it undergoes modifications depending on the lexical meaning of the noun:
John's house - John has a house;
John's happiness - John is happy;
John's smile - John is smiling.
The meaning of possession is limited to nouns denoting animate things while the posessive of the nouns denoting lifeless things is metaphoric. E.g. the river's brink.
Nouns denting units of distance and time in the Posessive case do not express possession at all: a month's leave, a mile's distance.
15. The verb is a part of speech, which expresses a process or action. The verb is characterized by a developed system of morphological categories. They are: tense, aspect, voice, mood, correlation, posteriority, person, number. Verbs are connected 1) with a preceding or following noun (children play, play chess); 2) with adverbs which is the most characteristic of the verb (play well); 3) occasionally with adjectives (married young). In a sentence a verb is always a simple verbal predicate.
The verb occupies a special place in the syst of P.S. because of it's unique feature-VALENCY.-the ability of the verb to determine the number & the char-re of other parts of the sent.
The verb is a complicated & copatious part of sp. It's compl char-re is manifested in the fact that it has the largest number of gr categories. It's copatious char-re is manif-d in the fact that the verb as a part of sp is presented in 2 subsystems: the finite, non-finite forms.
It's finite forms make up the center of the class & they participate in building the primary predicative line, i e the basis of the sent.
The non-finites make up the pereferia of the class. They are car-rized by a contamination of some verbal & some syntact features of the other ps.
V carry a great deal of info (they name actions, states, events and place them in time) V tells us whether the action is real or unreal/ complete or still going on.
The cl of V is open & it is inriched everyday by means of affixation, conversion & compounding (suf: -ise, -en, -ate, ify: pref: re-, over-, under-, mis-, en).
So the nature of the verb is responsible for the sentact str-re of the sent(the sent is built around the verb on the basis of the verb valency). Conversion is also productive. Verbs may be derived from any ps
Subclasses of V
V-s are classified according to 3 main aspects: form, function & gr semantics. According to their form E v-s are div-d into 2 classes: regular & irregular.(old system).
According to their function v-s are subdevided into: notional & functional. In between these 2 classes are seminotional v-s (modal v; modalized v; aspective v; v of subj-action relational semantics(fail, try). phasal semantics
Unlike notional v which have a full nominative value semi-notional v have a partial nom value. They do not name actions but add either modal or aspective char-ristic to the action or show whether the subj managed or failed to fulfill the action.
Funct v are devided into: -auxiliaries, -links,- substitutes, -intensifires.
There may be semiaux-s: to be going to, let+pronoun+inf.
Besides prototipical links(be, become, look) ther are less regular link-v(run, make, go.)
Many of v-s in E are polyfunctional. Thus the verb Have may be notional, auxiliary, semiaux, modal.
There are also cases of syncretizm when a funct v fulfills 2 functions. Ex: She was sad & crying.
According to the gr-semantics v-s are devided into:
-dynamic & static
-transitive & intransitive(it is requires a direct object & without it the meaning of a [] is not complete
-durative(the action named by this V can last without reaching any logical end) & terminative(there is a certain logical end).
These sem char-ristics are related to gr categories of aspect, time, voice.
A v may be trans in one meaning & intr in another. Ex: He ran for his life.--This is how a business should be run.
Similary a v may be terminative in one meaning & durative in another. Ex: He worked in the local bakery.--I made a remark but it didn't work.
A v may be static in one m-g & dynamic in another. Ex: I'm thinking it over.-I think he'll come.
16. Grammatical category of tense – denotes the reflection of objective divisions of time – present, past & future + in English, time viewed from some point in the past, so called Future-in-the-past or Future I as opposed to Future I; expresses the relation between the time of the action & the moment of speech (now) or any other point in reference taken for the basis of temporal relations (then).
Verbs denote actions & they are related both to the concept of space & time. These conc-s are closely interrelated. The idea of their unity found it's expression in the theory of Chronotope which concideres them as 2 diffr aspects of the whole. In most langv the expression of time is associated with the gr category of tense with 3 gr tenses: pres, past, future. In E it is expressed lex-ly, gr-ly & so on.
The gr category of tense is defined as a category which expresses the relations b/w the time of the action and the moment of speech.
The problem of Tense has always been in the focus of lingv attention. Lingv -s differ in the number of tense forms. This number various from 2 to 12. Reasons: tense, asp, time, may be expressed simultaneously in one and the same form. This gives ground to interprete such forms as tenses. Korsakov presents the gr cat of tense in E as a complex system which includes absolute and anterior tenses, static and dynamic tenses. Smirnitskiy says that a categorial form cannot express at a time several meanings of the same cat - ry, but it can expr several meanings of difr gr categor.
The pres-day paradigme of the tense has 3 times: pr, past, future.
The pr tenseexpresses connection simultaneous to the time of communication.
The past tense expr the act prior to the time of communication.
The future - an action subsequent to the time of communication.
The pr tense presupposes the immediate perception of the events by the viewer. Whereas past and future denote events which are not percepted directly.
Besides the primary meaning the forms of the pres are regulary transposed into the sphere of future and the forms expose their secondary meaning.
The pr forms may also be transposed into the past time context when the act reffering to the past are described in the pres tense (dramatic present). Ex: we were playing golf and suddenly he looks at me and says smth. (effect of immediate pres has a cinematogr effect).
The past tdenotes an act prior to the time of communic. It is the main tense of narration ab the past events. Past is occasionally used to express universal truths. In dialogs past indef and past contin denote actions reffering to the pres but past is used to be polite (preteret of modesty ore attitudenal past ).
The future denotes an action subsequent to the time of com-on. Besides it may be used to express universal truth ore habitual char-ristics. Ex: boys will always be boys.
The E system of T consists of two subsystems: absolute and relative tenses.
Abs tensesare correlated to the moment of speach.
Relative T are correlated to some moment in the past.
Sequence of tenses is an assentially semantic phenomenon. This rule is observed only if the action refferes to the ontological past (past of the real world). If the actions of the objective clause reffere to the ontological pres or future this rule is generally not observed.
These 3 tenses may appear in the common or continuous aspect or in the form of the category of correlation (perfect).
Traditionally 16 tenses are distinguished in Modern English: 4 Indefinite, 4 Continuous, 4 Perfect and 4 Perfect Continuous. Most of them are made analytically.
But some scholars find only 3 “genuine tenses” in Modern English (professor Smirnitsky) - Indefinite Tenses. As to other tense-groups, they have the same time reference, e.g. the difference between the Indefinite and the Continuous Tense is not temporal but aspective. (E.g. I got up at 7. I was getting up at 7).
The Perfect forms express priority with regard to the moment of speaking and they are treated as relative tenses. The future-in-the past is also believed to be a relative tense.
Professor Smirnitsky was of the opinion that Future in the Past is a mood form (conditional) in meaning and form, while Khaimovich and Rogovskaya point out, that it belongs to a special grammatical category of posteriority (позднейшее обстоятельство) which is expressed by a system of 2 memeber opposemes: shall (will) come - should (would) come, the former has the meaning of absolute posteriority, the latter - relative posteriority. This category shows whether the action is posterior as to the moment speech or some moment in the past.
Professor Barkhudarov, following American linguists, denies the future tense in Modern English and treats “shall and will + Infinitive” as a modal phrase.
Thus the English verb has 2 tenses (present, past), category of correlation (non-perfect – vs -perfect), aspect (Non-continuous (Common) -vs- Continuous), category of posteriority (absolute future – relative future).
A different view of the English tense system has been put forward by professor Irtenyeva. According to this view the system is divided into two halves: that of tenses centering in the present, and that of tenses centering in the past. The view has the advantage of reducing the usual threefold division of tenses (past, present and future) to a twofold division (past and present) and each of the two future tenses is included into the past or the present system.
All these theories fail to serve practical purposes. The real use of these forms does not come under the frame of an ideal system. This happens because within each group of tenses the forms lack uniformity (единообразие) of the meaning and application. Most of the forms are characterized by various uses, i.e. at the same time they have basic meanings and marginal uses. E.g. Present Indefinite's basic meaning is that of permanent or recurrent (повторяющийся время от времени, периодический) actions (I get up at 7) but when used figuratively it may express a past action (Historic present), a general truth, an action taking place at the moment of speaking (I hear it).
Present and Past Continuous's basic meaning is an action in progress at a definite moment in the past and present, but Future Continuous is oftener used to express a future action which is supposed to take place as a matter of course (само собой разумеющееся). E.g. I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow.
Past and Future Perfect serve to express priority, but the basic meaning of Present Perfect is the completion of the action.
17. Grammatical category of aspect – GC that expresses the speaker’s interpretation of the internal character of the action in its relation to such features as internal limit, result, duration, iteration etc; marks the duration of the action in the form of the verb, as opposed to unmarked duration in the other member of aspectual oppositions.
Aspect involves diffr ways of viewing the internal temporal consistency of situation & presenting it by the verbal forms. It expr the speaker's interpretation of the internal limit of the act, result, duration.
Asp in diffr langv may choose diffr features of act for its basis. In R Asp has at its basis the meaning of the internal limit of act & is constituted on the oppos-ion of perf/non-perf forms of the verb (делать/сделать). Besides gr means Asp in R may also be expr-d lex-ly (делать/перед-ть).
Asp in E has at its basis a diffr feature of act, that of duration & is constituted on the oppos-ion of Indef & Continuous forms of the verb.
This oppos embrases the whole class of v-s with very few exeptions: to contain, to consist, whose sem-s is incompatable with the idea of process.
The formal marker of the Cont form is the discontinious morph -be, -ing. The sem marker (the meaning) is limited duration (process). This meaning comes out most clearly in the context where the indef & continious forms are just opposed. Ex: Do u work here?-I'm working here but I don't work.
The meaning of duration in diffr contexts may be modefied & presented by a number of syntagm meanings. The most frequent SM are:
Simultaneity to another act. This meaning is realized in the str-re of a composite sent or a sequence of sent-s. Ex: The others were talking & he listened.
A temporary char-re of a state or quality. Ex: You are being naughty.
Intensity is usually formed with verbs of sense perception, desirability, liking & disliking.
Recurency of act is realized with terminative verbs. Ex: People were coming in...
Tentativeness (lack of assertiveness) is conditioned by a pragmatic factor. The diffr b/w the 2 phrases: I hope that/I'm hoping lies in degree of asser-ness.
The Cont forms carry out a spec function in the text. The forms of the Past Ind express a sucsession of actions, thus carrying out the funct of the text progression. The forms of PC suspend the narration to focus on detailes (descriptive f).The oppos Contin/Common Asp may be neutralized when the meaning of duration is caaried out by by other elt-s of the context (prep, conj...). neutralis-ion doesn't take place when a verb is used in its sec-ry function.